The Olmec civilization is often referred to as the “Mother Culture” of Mesoamerica.

Known for their colossal stone heads, intricate art, and advanced agricultural techniques, the Olmecs laid the foundations for many other Mesoamerican cultures, writing systems, calendar concepts, and religious practices.

• Area of Settlement: Gulf Coast (present-day Veracruz and Tabasco).
• Dates: Approx. 1500 BCE – 400 BCE.

Important Places:

• San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán: Early Olmec ceremonial center.
• La Venta: Known for its colossal heads and ceremonial pyramids.
• Tres Zapotes: Site of the last major Olmec phase.

The Zapotecs were one of the first civilizations in Mesoamerica to develop a system of writing and a calendar. They are also known for their advanced agricultural practices and their influence on neighboring cultures.

The Zapotecs flourished for centuries in the Oaxaca Valley.

• Area of Settlement: Oaxaca Valley.
• Dates: Approx. 700 BCE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Monte Albán: A large ceremonial and political center.
• Mitla: Known for intricate mosaics and religious significance.

The Maya civilization is known for its advanced knowledge of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. They developed a complex calendar system and one of the earliest forms of writing in the Americas.

Their cities were centers of religion, trade, and governance.

• Area of Settlement: Yucatán Peninsula, Chiapas, Tabasco, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras.
• Dates: Approx. 2000 BCE – 1500 CE.

Important Places:

• Chichén Itzá: A major city with the iconic El Castillo pyramid.
• Uxmal: Known for the Pyramid of the Magician.
• Palenque: Famous for its architecture and inscriptions.
• Tulum: A coastal city with well-preserved walls and temples.
• Calakmul: One of the largest ancient Maya cities.

Teotihuacan was one of the largest cities in the ancient world and a major cultural and economic center. It is known for its massive pyramids, sophisticated urban design, and influence on other Mesoamerican civilizations.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (present-day State of Mexico).
• Dates: Approx. 100 BCE – 750 CE.

Important Places:

• Teotihuacan: The city with the Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and Avenue of the Dead.

The Toltecs were known for their militaristic culture and artistic achievements.

The Toltecs were skilled builders and left behind impressive monuments, such as the Atlantean statues in Tula. The Toltec civilization significantly influenced the Aztecs, who regarded them as cultural predecessors.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (Hidalgo and surrounding areas).
• Dates: Approx. 900 CE – 1150 CE.

Important Places:

• Tula (Tollan): Known for its Atlantean stone statues.

The Mixtecs were known for their craftsmanship, particularly in gold, ceramics, and manuscripts. They also developed intricate political systems and were influential in southern Mexico, especially in Oaxaca.

• Area of Settlement: Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla.
• Dates: Approx. 1000 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Yagul: A Mixtec ceremonial center.
• Tilantongo: An important political and cultural site.

The Tarascans, or Purépecha, were a powerful civilization. Known for their resistance to Aztec expansion, the Tarascans developed unique architectural styles and advanced metalworking techniques, particularly in copper.

• Area of Settlement: Michoacán and surrounding areas.
• Dates: Approx. 1300 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Tzintzuntzan: The Purépecha capital, known for its circular pyramids called Yácatas.

The Aztecs were one of the most powerful civilizations in Mesoamerica. They built an empire, with advanced systems of agriculture, governance, and trade. Known for their religious rituals, they left a lasting legacy in Mexican culture.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (present-day Mexico City and surrounding areas).
• Dates: Approx. 1325 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Tenochtitlán: Capital city, located on an island in Lake Texcoco.
• Tlatelolco: Known for its large marketplace.
• Cholula: Important religious site with the Great Pyramid of Cholula.

The Huastecs were known for their unique art and music, as well as their distinctive architectural styles. The Huastecs were skilled agriculturists and maintained vibrant trade networks along the Gulf Coast.

• Area of Settlement: Northeastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí).
• Dates: Approx. 1500 BCE – 1500 CE.

Important Places:

• Tamtoc: A ceremonial and political center.

The Totonacs were known for their agricultural innovations, particularly vanilla cultivation, and their monumental architecture. They were skilled engineers, as evidenced by the impressive structures at El Tajín.

• Area of Settlement: Veracruz and parts of Puebla.
• Dates: Approx. 800 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• El Tajín: Known for its Pyramid of the Niches.

The “Totonac”‘ are a native Mesoamerican culture of the Veracruz region. Formed a Confederation of cities; but toward the early 16th century were under the Aztec domain. Its economy was agricultural and commercial and had large urban centers.

The Totonac culture (translated by some as “three hearts”, in reference to the three centers that form this culture) stands out for the very varied ceramics, stone sculptures, monumental architecture, and advanced urban city conception.

In 1519 a meeting between 30 Totonac cities was held in the city of Cempoala.

This would forever seal their fate and that of all Mesoamerican Nations. This was an alliance established with the Spaniards, to march together to the conquest of Tenochtitlan.

The Totonac voluntarily contributed 13,000 warriors to the task, to accompany some 500 Spaniards.

The Totonaca reasoning was that the Spaniards would free them from the Aztec yoke, but once the Aztec empire was successfully defeated, the Totonacs, including those of Cempoala, were subjected to the Spanish empire, and then evangelized and partly cultured, first by the new Spanish “virreinal” authorities and then by Mexicans.

The Totonacs developed in the central part of Veracruz, towards the late Mesoamerican classical period, their occupational area reached the southern basin of the Papaloapan River, and to the west the municipalities of Acatlán de Perez Figueroa, Oaxaca, Chalchicomula, Puebla, Perote Valley, the Puebla sierra, Papantla and the Cazones river lowlands.

The Totonac culture apogee was reached during the Mesoamerican classical period when ceremonial centers such as El Tajín, Yohualichán, Nepatecuhtlán, Las Higueras, Nopiloa, and Zapotal were built.

Their development and perfection achieved is remarkable, in developing yokes, palms, axes, snakes, smiling caritas, and monumental clay sculptures. Apparently, the Totonaca formed part of the Tula Empire and since 1450 were conquered by the Triple Alliance (Mexico) nahuas and joined their troops.

The Language

The Totonacan Languages are a family of closely related languages spoken by approximately 200,000 Totonac and Tepehua people in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo in Mexico. The Totonacan languages are not demonstrably related to any other languages, although they share numerous areal features with other languages of the Mesoamerican Sprachbund, such as the Mayan languages and Nahuatl.

Although the family is traditionally divided into two languages, Totonac and Tepehua, the various dialects thereof are not always mutually intelligible and thus Totonac and Tepehua are better characterized as families in themselves. The following classification is the one made by the Ethnologue, although some of these groups can probably be seen as forming subgroups of their own. Standard terminology is used for the dialects that the Ethnologue names differently from published scholarly works, e.g. “Upper Necaxa Totonac” instead of “Totonac of Patla-Chicontla”.

Like many native Mexican languages, the Totonac languages have slowly been replaced by Spanish.

However, the totonacan misanteca variety is in greater danger of disappearing. Other languages are still spoken in several communities in the States of Puebla, Veracruz, Hidalgo, and San Luis Potosí.

Discovered in 1971, with one of the most beautiful and impressive ceramic prehispanic sculptures. The site was occupied by Totonac. The discovery included several human burials with clay figure offerings, including a group of women with naked torso, identified as representations of the lady of the land: Cihuatéotl, today are exhibited in the Jalapa Anthropology Museum.

Information was available about great figures of women and goddesses modeled in clay in the vicinity of the Laguna de Alvarado, in the municipality of Ignacio de la Llave, Veracruz. It was known that this region was very rich in archaeological remains.

El Zapotal is a great Totonac site whose apogee seems to have occurred at the end of the late classical and early postclassical periods. Although it contains many buildings, (as is typical in Mexico) only a few have been explored.

There is an ossuary and many ceramic objects, some with excellent handcraft. Among these, there is a beautiful ceramic sculpture found in the walls of one of the buildings. This piece was an integral part of that building’s decoration and was made with uncooked clay.

It is thought that it corresponds to a shrine dedicated to the Death God, there were many offerings of clay figures, as well as nearly a hundred individuals, constituting the most complex and lavish funerary ritual known.

The offerings cover several stratigraphic layers, it is estimated that it was dedicated to the Lord of the Dead, whose image, also modeled in clay, was uncooked. The God, whom Nahuatl speakers called Mictlantecuhtli is sitting on a lavish throne, whose back is integrated into the enormous headgear worn, there are human skulls sideways, heads of lizards, and fantastic Jaguars.

It is a beautiful image of Mictlantecuhtli, the Death God, represented as an emaciated person.

The Death Lord is a God that represents the essence of life and death, hence it is a deity representing an intermediate state: a living dead. The body is emaciated, as its torso, arms, and head have some joints, bones, ribs, and skull exposed. It is believed that the material with which the eyes were made depicted an alive look, in addition, its tongue hangs out, a symbol of the dark underworld; the mocking expression displays the aesthetic sensitivity of Mesoamerican thought.

Fear of death and beauty mingle when this figure, an incredible testimony of the prehispanic past is seen for the first time. It is located at a side of the sanctuary, the side walls were decorated with priest procession scenes on a red background, with the figure of the God, its throne, and headdress; some segments painted the same color are preserved.

Because of its quality, it is considered one of the most outstanding Mesoamerican cultural manifestations because all are elaborated with clay, together constitute a unique artistic style, most of the pieces found are in the Jalapa Anthropology and history Museum, “The Lord of Death” (Mitlantecuhtli), is located in the Zapotal Site Museum.

Because of its fragility, the sculpture was kept on site, and a site Museum was founded.

The Mictlantecuhtli deity

Mictlantecuhtli (also Mictlantecuhtzi, o Tzontémoc): death lord and Lord of Mictlán, also the northern god, one of those holding heaven.

“‘Mictlantecuhtli”‘ (Nahuatl word meaning (tecuh-tli) Lord of the underworld (Mictlán)) is an Aztec, Zapotec, and Mixtec underworld God and of the dead (not the Catholic concept of hell), was also called Popocatzin (from “popoca” ‘smoking’), was therefore the God of the shadows. Together with his wife Mictecacihuatl, governed the underworld or Mictlan Kingdom. Exercised sovereignty over the “nine underground rivers” and on the souls of the dead. He is depicted as a human skeleton with a skull with many teeth. Associated with spiders, bats, and owls, when drawn was represented with black hair and stellar (star) eyes.

The Sculpture on the right was found in the Eagle Warrior House, a sacred place of the Templo Mayor of Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

Female goddesses, warriors, Sun companions, grandiose and eternal. Fertility Symbol and lineage willingness, an example of courage and deliverance. Their eyes closed open mouths, singing to death, death or singing, eternal life, and the struggle between what man is and what the gods represent.

Magnificent clay sculptures, samples of mastery and mystery, walking towards Mictlan, red, blue, adorned with snails and extraordinary snakes, burning copal pleasing the gods of the sky. Are the El Zapotal Cihuatéotl, the best example of female power, of the respect that its characteristic strength gives them?

Their eyes closed as if hiding something more than a glance behind her eyelids, hiding life reality that sometimes was sublime. Mouth open, as if expressing the mother’s pain and recounted the history that hundreds of women like her lived.

The Cihuateteo or Cihuapipiltin in Aztec mythology were spirits, (gods of excess), Macuiltonaleque sisters (excess gods) who were souls of noble women dead at childbirth (mociuaquetzque). Contrary to the Civatateo honored as men killed in battle. The Cihuateteo were pale white faces skeletons, eagle feet instead of hands, and dress with lace dresses decorated with tibias crossed.

The Codex Borgia, within the “Great Mother” concept, the Cihuapipiltin is the epitome of women dying at their first childbirth. “Noble women” or Cihuateteo were the Cihuapipiltin “divine women”.

These women or mocihuaquetzque, were worshipped with extensive magical facets; parts of their bodies were prized objects for warriors and mages who saw them as magical instruments. Their hierarchy allowed them to be buried in the Cihuapipiltin temple patio.

In fact, they were considered part of the warriors killed in battle, of the sun entourage. They were considered responsible for adultery.

These women appear nine times in the codex, and represent newly birthed women, with naked torsos full and heavy breasts, and folds in the belly. There are four Cihuateteo in sheet 46. The body painting is yellow with a profile body to show us the folds in the womb of their status as newly birthed. On their black hair have the insignia wig made of amatzontli paper with feather ornate to indicate their sacrificed woman character (killed) in the sacred action of conceiving life. The hair is tied with a wide leather strip adorned in the front with a larger size feather. Between the latter and the wig, protrude two hair tufts placed vertically.

In the times of Yenistle III King of the Totonaca dynasty, one of his wives gave birth to a girl called Tzacopomtziza (dawn shining star), because her singular beauty was consecrated to the cult of the Tonacayohua, carer of seeding, bread, and food.

But a Prince named Zkatan-Oxga (young venison) fell in love with her, while he knew that such sacrilege was punishable with death, one day when Tzacopomtziza came out of the temple, he abducted her and escaped with her to the mountain, on their way monster wrapped them with fire waves forcing them back to where the priests anfgrily awaited them and before Zkatan-Oxga could speak, both their throats were cut. Their hearts were thrown to the goddess’s altar.

When the grass dried, their blood began to sprout a shrub, with thick foliage giving birth to a climbing orchid covering the thick foliage with amazing speed and exuberance, perfuming the ambient with its aroma. Jose de Jesús Núñez and Domínguez.

From Veracruz

By bus from Veracruz to Santiago Tuxtla $7-$25 (3:05 hours) 4 times a day.
In taxi from Santiago Tuxtla to El Zapotal $5-$7 (0:30 min).

From Veracruz to El Zapotal in taxi takes around 2:15 hours.

From Coatzacoalcos

By bus from Coatzacoalcos to San Andrés Tuxtla $8-$26 (4:05 hours) once a day.
By taxi from San Andrés Tuxtla to El Zapotal $7-$9 (0:40 min).

By taxi from Coatzacoalcos to El Zapotal $28-$35 (1:55 hours).

From Cordoba

By bus from Cordoba to Veracruz $8-$12 (2:00 hours) once a day.
By bus from Veracruz to Santiago Tuxtla $7-$25 (3:05 hours) 4 times a day.
In taxi from Santiago Tuxtla to El Zapotal $5-$7 (0:30 min).

By taxi or by car from Cordoba to El Zapotal takes 2:10 hours.

From Orizaba

By bus from Orizaba to Veracruz $7-$25 (2:35 hours) every 20 min a day.
By bus from Veracruz to Santiago Tuxtla $7-$25 (3:05 hours) 4 times a day.
In taxi from Santiago Tuxtla to El Zapotal $5-$7 (0:30 min).

By taxi or by car from Orizaba to El Zapotal takes 2:25 hours.

From Puebla

By bus from Puebla to Cosamaloapan $14-$35 (5:40 hours) every 20 min a day.
In taxi from Cosamaloapan to El Zapotal $55-$70 (0:55 min).

By bus from Puebla to Veracruz $13-$35 (5:10 hours) hourly.
By bus from Veracruz to Santiago Tuxtla $7-$25 (3:05 hours) 4 times a day.
In taxi from Santiago Tuxtla to El Zapotal $5-$7 (0:30 min).

By taxi or by car from Puebla to El Zapotal takes 4:00 hours.

The word “Cēmpoalli”, from the Nahuatl root “Cēmpoal”, means twenty, and “ā (tl)”, means water, hence “twenty waters”.
An alternative etymology suggests the name meant “Abundant Water”.

Both versions imply that the city had many aqueducts which fed the numerous gardens and surrounding farmland fields.

A third version conjectures that the name referred to commercial activities which, according to some sources, were performed every 20 days in pre-Hispanic times.

Research by Vincent H. Malmström (Dartmouth College) describes an interesting astronomical relationship between the three-round rings found at Cempoala.

The Totonacs moved onto this coastal plain during the height of the Toltec Empire (A.D. 1000-1150). Archaeologists believe the Toltecs had pushed the Totonacs out of their settlements on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental and down to the coast.

Cempoala lies on the flat coastal plain about six kilometers from the Gulf and a little more than a kilometer from the banks of the Rio Actopan (also called the Rio Chachalacas).

Alliance

Cempoala and other coastal Veracruz locations were defeated by the Aztec armies of Moctezuma I (mid-15th century).

They were heavily taxed (goods and sacrifice prisoners) and forced to send hundreds of people as a tribute for sacrifices and as slaves. This conditioning treatment at the hands of the Aztecs created the situation which led up to the defeat of the Aztecs by Cortez in the 16th century.

When the Spaniards led by Hernan Cortes arrived in 1519, the Totonacs had been suffering Aztec domination for several years.

The Spaniards heard of a town on the way named Zempoala while at their malaria-ridden camp of San Juan de Ulua. They marched over and sent word of their arrival, and upon their arrival were met by 20 Zempoalan dignitaries.

In town, they met with “Fat Chief” Xicomecoatl, who fed them and gave them quarters. The Totonac presented Cortez with numerous gifts, including gold jewelry.

Xicomecoatl made many complaints against the Aztec Empire and the great Montezuma.

Cortez promised to alleviate his concerns. At Quiahuiztlan, the Spaniards and Totonacs forged their alliance against the Aztecs.

Spaniards and Totonacs had the same fate. In August 1519, Cortés and 40 Totonac captains, which by a lower estimate equates to around 8000 soldiers, and 400 porters left for Tenochtitlan.

The effort ended with the fall of Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma II, the Aztec Tlatoani, as a hostage.

After conquest

Cempoala was a prosperous city in 1519 when the Spaniards under Hernan Cortes arrived in Mexico and established alliances with some groups to go towards the capture of Tenochtitlan.

The city of Cempoala then numbered approximately 20,000 inhabitants and was the most important ceremonial and commercial center of the Aztec empire, more so than Tlatelolco.

The Spaniards called it Villa Viciosa, meaning fertile village by the many festivals and vast orchards and gardens available and festive and joyful inhabitants character, was later known as new Seville for its resemblance, as per the Spaniards, with the Iberian town.

Between 1575 and 1577 smallpox (matlazahuatl) epidemic decimated the population, it is estimated that two million people lost their lives in Mesoamerica, the city was totally abandoned, and the few survivors moved to the city of Xalapa, which eventually fell into oblivion until archeologist Francisco del Paso and Troncoso rediscovered it.

After the victory and conquest, the Cempoala Totonacs soon took their new destiny next to their foreign partners: were relocated and had to leave the city as they were Christianized, banned from practicing their ancient cults, and were turned into slaves to work new Spanish sugar cane fields.

Cortés first arrived at Zempoala in 1519 with 500 conquistadores who then made a long trip up into the highlands using the same routes used to haul maize to Tenochtitlan. His was added by the lord of Cempoala, known by his extraordinary corpulence as the “fat Cacique”.

The town was settled around walled perimeters delimiting temples and palaces; dating back to the 11th to 16th centuries.

The site buildings show impressive squares and fortresses surrounded by vegetation which permanently covers this area, called “Place of accounts”, as was called the Mexica rulers because it was here where all taxes and tributes from the region were collected.

What today is the archaeological site had been the most important political-religious center of the city, whose constructions were made with river stones, joined with mortar, and flattened with the lime produced from burning shells and snails, obtaining in this way that buildings shone from far away as if they were built in silver.

The urban Cempoala complex includes several buildings and major architectural structures, not only by its construction but by its historic importance, often unknown, as for example, in the part of the site now known as walled system IV, Cortés successfully faced the forces of Pánfilo de Narváez, thus consolidating his leadership in the colonization of the Mexican territory.

The main structures at Cempoala, include the following:

Templo del Sol or Great Pyramid

Or Sun Temple was built on the same platform as the Templo Mayor, separated by an ample square.

This is probably the most impressive structure on site. The great temple resembles the Sun Temple in Tenochtitlan. The Quetzalcoatl Temple, the Feathered Serpent God is a square platform, and the Ehécatl Temple, the wind God is round.

Templo Mayor

The top part is surrounded by battlements.

Templo de las Chimeneas

Or chimney temple, has a series of semicircular pillars 1.5 meters high, because of this peculiar shape, the building is named.

El Pimiento

It has a three-bodied structure, its most notable feature is its exterior decor based on skull representations.

Moctezuma’s Palace

No information

Templo de la Cruz

Or cross temple maintains some fresco mural sections with celestial motifs.

Templo Las Caritas

The so-called Temple of Charity standing about 200 meters to the east is a two-tier structure decorated with fragments of stucco reliefs.

It is named for the hundreds of stucco skulls that once adorned the facade of a small structure at the base of the temple’s staircase-archaeologists believe this complex was dedicated to the god of death.

It consists of two overlaid basements with top side elements, an open room, and two decorative belts, the lower has murals depicting the sun, Moon, and Venus, as the early morning stars, and the higher section has a large amount of clay “little faces” or little skulls.

The Structure is decorated with stucco faces on the walls and hieroglyphs painted in lower sections Gran Pirámide and the wind god Ehécatl worship altar.

Other Mounds

There are other mounds, unexcavated, that cannot be visited, located within Cempoala’s current houses. Some of the structures there are probably built in the same style as were the residences of the prehispanic commoners.

Some research by Vincent H. Malmström of Dartmouth College describes an interesting astronomical relationship that exists because of the three-round rings found at Zempoala. We will quote a part of his discussion concerning the Three Ceremonial Rings of Zempoala.

Beneath the massive pyramid (north eastern corner) in the central plaza of Zempoala, are three puzzling stone rings, each made from rounded beach cobbles jointed together to make small, stepped pillars.

The largest ring has 40 stepped pillars, the middle ring has 28, and the smaller ring is 13, around its circumference. It seems that three rings were used to calibrate different astronomical cycles, possibly by placing a marker or an idol from one pillar to the next, day after day.

The stone rings viewed from the top of the main pyramid, are surmounted by 13, 28, and 40 step-like pillars, which might have been counting devices to keep track of eclipse cycles, by Totonac priests.

It is possible that by using the rings, Totonacs priests were able to calibrate the movements of the moon. There are reasons to believe these rings provide further evidence of the intellectual curiosity and architectural ingenuity of the early Mesoamericans.”

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