• Research opening hours and book tickets online to avoid lines.
• Credit cards are widely accepted.
• Having cash for street vendors and small shops is always good.
• Apps like Uber and DiDi are convenient and reliable in Mexico City.
• Stick to well-known areas like the Centro Histórico, Roma, and Polanco.
• Avoid wandering into less touristy neighborhoods after dark.
• The city’s altitude can be challenging, so drink plenty of water.

Dangerous and illegal activity in Mexico City is mostly isolated to specific neighborhoods. If you stay away from shady areas, it’s unlikely that you’ll have any issues at all during your trip to Mexico City.

Even in the safest neighborhoods, there is always a small risk of petty crime like theft, especially for tourists. Travelers to Mexico City are advised to use caution due to threats that include violent and petty crime.

Mexico City is the largest city in North America and is made up of many unique neighborhoods and regions. Some of these are worth exploring and others should be avoided.

The safest and most tourist-friendly regions in Mexico City include Roma Norte/Sur, Centro Historico, Zona Rosa, and Condesa.

These areas include historic landmarks, incredible architecture, and many of those must-do activities that will be on your Mexico City itinerary. These areas tend to be busier and have a police presence for increased safety.

They are also the most popular areas to stay in Mexico City.

If you’re looking to adventure outside of the tourist hotspots and experience a bit more of Mexico City as locals do, there are plenty of other neighborhoods that are considered safe without being quite as touristy.

San Rafael, Polanco, Juarez, Escandon, and Coyoacan are all wonderful areas to explore and are considered safe by visitors and locals alike.

With so many incredible neighborhoods to explore, you shouldn’t feel worried about running out of things to do.

Still, it’s important to keep in mind that some areas of Mexico City have higher rates of crime, and it’s a good idea to avoid those areas. Tepito, Ciudad Neza, and Iztapalapa are best avoided altogether.

Steer clear of Iztapalapa as it has a high rate of violent crime, especially against women. Tepito has an extremely busy and relatively shady street market where crime and robbery are common.

Tourists are also warned against visiting Ciudad Neza – it’s an extremely poor neighborhood and crime is common, even though the area has changed significantly in recent years.

Doctores is a region where many tourists venture to visit the famous Lucha Libre wrestling matches in Mexico City, and it’s generally pretty safe to explore during daylight hours.

At night the area becomes more dangerous and is a common place where tourists run into trouble. If you are planning to be in Doctores, consider hiring a trusted local guide, go during the day, and be cautious.

Public transportation in Mexico City is safe, just make sure to keep your bags with you, and don’t fall asleep on the bus. Use caution at night as you get on and off public transportation and opt for taking Uber at night as it can get seedy at night.

There are female-only carriages and platforms for solo female travelers for extra safety.

The most important thing to remember when considering food and beverage safety in Mexico City is that you should never drink tap water. Even some Mexico City locals who have lived there for their entire lives advise against drinking tap water.

The water is technically safe to drink but visitors on a short holiday should avoid it to be safe. The bottom line is, you’re not used to it!

Even brushing your teeth with tap water in Mexico can be problematic for visitors, although I always do. Residents of Mexico City might brush their teeth, but tourists are better off just using bottled water to brush their teeth and avoid opening their mouths in the shower.

Filtered water is okay in most areas, and most ice is made with filtered water but if you want to be extra careful – stick to bottled water.

Food, on the other hand, is much safer. Food standards in Mexico City tend to be very high and even most of the street food vendors uphold healthy practices.

When choosing street food in Mexico City, look for places with long lines as they are generally safe and tasty. You can also find awesome places with the help of a local guide if you join a taco tour in Mexico City!

Look for hand sanitizer at the vendors to ensure the people preparing the food are keeping their hands clean, and make sure to wash your own hands before you eat. I eat street food all over Mexico City and to date, I have never had an issue.

Plenty of people travel solo to Mexico City each year. It’s a popular destination and offers lively nightlife and plenty of activities to keep solo travelers busy. It’s a great destination for a solo trip, just make sure to avoid more dangerous neighborhoods and travel in groups at night.

If you stay at hostels in Mexico City, you should have no trouble meeting other solo travelers to explore the city.

There is safety in numbers! If you’re having trouble meeting people to travel with, consider booking guided group tours in Mexico City which are usually pretty affordable.

Otherwise, follow the basic Mexico safety guidelines for any solo travel trip. Watch your belongings closely and don’t carry too much cash. Don’t wear flashy clothes or expensive jewelry so that you avoid making yourself a target for theft.

Keep in touch with someone at home and have regular check-ins with family and friends. If you’re going out at night, let someone know where you are going and when they can expect you back.

What about solo female travel?

Most solo female travelers in Mexico City won’t have any safety issues, but it is still important if you’re traveling alone to use extra caution. Don’t go out at night by yourself, and you might want to stick with a group even during the daylight hours in some areas.

Female travelers should also be careful of leaving their drinks unattended. While drugging drinks isn’t a huge problem in Mexico City, it isn’t unheard of. Keep your beverages with you as a solo female traveler, even if you’re around other travelers.

Keep in mind that other tourists are just as likely to use drink-spiking drugs as locals are.

Use your best judgment and stay alert and you should be just fine!

Mexico City’s vibrant and lively nightlife scene is one of the things that keeps tourists coming back to visit again and again.

The city comes alive when the sun sets and you can experience everything from fancy cocktail bars to salsa dancing, to the wild Lucha Libre wrestling matches every night of the week.

Visiting Mexico City and avoiding the nightlife is almost impossible. It’s one of the greatest things about a trip to Mexico City! Still, it’s important to use caution as you would in any other major city to stay safe. Travel in groups when walking around at night and bar hopping.

Enjoy some delicious drinks without getting out of control. It’s fine to party, but getting black-out wasted in a way that is obvious to those around you makes you an easy target for robberies and other crimes.

Walk back to your hotel, Airbnb, or hostel with a group, and make sure that no one is following you. Take an Uber home instead of a taxi or public transportation at night.

There are also touristy places such as Garibaldi Square (pictured above) where you’ll find live Mariachi bands. The neighborhood that borders this square is dangerous for tourists so you should take an Uber to and from the square.

There is almost always a police presence at this square.

Mexico City has been known to have some pretty major earthquakes. The area surrounding Mexico City is a hotspot for volcanic activity and tectonic stress which has historically led to some violent earthquakes.

Two volcanoes and the Sierra Madre volcanic mountain range surround the city, so earthquakes can strike at any time. Mexico City is considered one of the most disaster-prone places in the world due to its natural hazards and infrastructure.

On September 22, 2022, a powerful 6.8 magnitude earthquake struck the city and killed one person. However, the worst in recent times was in 2017, and much of the city was affected.

If you find yourself outside during an earthquake, head to an open area away from electric lines, trees, or balconies. If you’re indoors, head to a safe place away from windows.

In addition to earthquakes, Mexico City can be prone to flooding during heavy rains which also leads to landslides. Keeping an eye on the weather can help ensure that you don’t get stuck in a dangerous situation involving flooding or landslides.

If you find yourself in need of emergency assistance during your trip to Mexico City, dial 911. If you’re from Canada or the United States, this is the same number you’d call at home, so it’s easy to remember!

No one wants to get sick while traveling, but if you find yourself in need of medical attention due to illness or injury, you’ll be happy to know that Mexico City has amazing hospitals that will be able to give you all the care you need during your stay.

Two Mexican City hospitals have made the list of the top hospitals in the world – these include Medica Sur and ABC Medical Center in Santa Fe.

Siglo XXI National Medical Center, Observatorio ABC Medical Center, and IMSS La Raza National Medical Center are other great hospitals if you’re seeking medical attention in Mexico City.

For most common ailments you can head to any of the clinics (often located in pharmacies) for treatment of minor illnesses and injuries.

Some areas in Mexico City are more susceptible to subsidence than others.

For example, the ground of the Historic Center area is more porous and is experiencing noticeable sinking. Colonia Roma and Colonia Condesa, both popular residential areas, are also facing similar challenges.

These areas are characterized by their soft soil composition, exacerbating the impact of groundwater extraction.

Land subsidence poses a significant threat to the city’s infrastructure. Buildings, roads, and other structures can be damaged as the ground sinks unevenly. The risk of flooding increases as the land subsides, impacting both residential and commercial areas.

Additionally, subsidence can strain sewage and drainage systems, leading to further complications.

Authorities in Mexico City are implementing measures to address land subsidence. These include regulations on groundwater extraction, investments in alternative water sources, and the development of sustainable urban planning strategies.

Collaborative efforts between government agencies, researchers, and the public are essential for effective mitigation. While short-term measures are crucial, addressing the root causes of land subsidence requires long-term planning.

This involves sustainable water management practices, promoting the use of rainwater harvesting, and investing in technologies that can monitor and control groundwater extraction.

Public awareness campaigns educate residents about water conservation and its impact on the city’s stability. The issue of land subsidence in Mexico City is a complex challenge that requires a multifaceted approach.

Explore the Historic Center of Mexico City

At the heart of the city, you’ll find the Zócalo, which includes the Templo Mayor, Palacio Nacional, and Plaza de la Constitución.

The Templo Mayor was an Aztec temple destroyed to make way for the Spanish cathedral. Today, you can see ancient artifacts and beautiful Spanish colonial architecture at La Catedral Metropolitana.

Exploring this area is a great way to learn about Mexico City’s culture and history.

Explore Templo Mayor

Mexico City is filled with historical landmarks, and one of the most significant ones is Templo Mayor. Located in the Historic Centre of Mexico City, Templo Mayor is a glimpse into life during the Aztec period.

The Aztecs considered this area to be the center of the universe and the birthplace of Mexico’s national symbol, the eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak.

Visit the site and museum, where you’ll see ancient artifacts and learn about Mesoamerican civilization.

Visit Chapultepec Park and Chapultepec Castle

This enormous park covers 1,695 acres and offers various attractions such as a zoo, an amusement park, and 9 different museums. Chapultepec Park is one of the world’s most popular urban parks.

You can spend days walking along forest paths and enjoying the lakes in Chapultepec.

Don’t miss the Museum of Anthropology, which displays sculptures, jewels, and artifacts from ancient Mexican civilizations.

You can also rent a boat and explore Chapultepec Lake.

For history enthusiasts, a visit to Chapultepec Castle, the former home of Emperor Maximilian I and Empress Carlota, is a must.

Discover the Museum of Anthropology

This museum is a treasure trove of ancient Mexican civilizations.

Admire the extensive collection of sculptures and artifacts that provide insight into the country’s rich history. This museum is a must-visit for those interested in learning about Mexico’s indigenous cultures and their contributions to art and civilization.

Mexico City is home to numerous art and history museums.

Don’t miss the National History Museum, Modern Art Museum, National Art Museum, and Museo do Arte Popular, which showcases Mexican folk art. These museums offer vast collections and provide a glimpse into the city’s cultural richness.

Enjoy the Zona Rosa’s Dining Scene

Zona Rosa is a popular neighborhood in Mexico City known for its vibrant nightlife and diverse dining options. Historically, it has been the center of the city’s gay community. You’ll find a wide range of bars, restaurants, and nightclubs here.

Don’t miss places like Cafetería El Péndulo, Xaman Bar, and Cabaretito Fusión. If you’re in the mood for a Korean barbecue, head to BiWon, as the neighborhood also has a significant Korean community.

Experience Xochimilco

Xochimilco is a neighborhood famous for its network of canals. Take a colorful trajinera boat and float along the canals, enjoying the festive atmosphere of the place.

You can also hire a mariachi band to accompany your ride and even buy food and drinks from floating vendors. Xochimilco offers a unique and lively experience that showcases traditional Mexican culture.

Explore Frida Kahlo’s House

Visit the “Casa Azul,” the former home of renowned Mexican artist Frida Kahlo and her husband Diego Rivera.

Explore the rooms where Frida lived and see some of her original artwork. The Casa Azul also hosts monthly artistic workshops, so be sure to check the schedule if you’re interested.

Tickets are in high demand, so it’s recommended to purchase them in advance.

Visit the Biblioteca Vasconcelos

Set amidst beautiful gardens, the Biblioteca Vasconcelos is an impressive library often referred to as a “mega library”. Opening its doors in 2006, it features transparent walls, six floors, and houses over 600,000 books.

The library also hosts cultural activities such as concerts, plays, and dance performances.

Don’t forget to explore the 26,000-square-meter garden filled with trees and plants. Admission is free, and you can check the website for any special events happening during your visit.

Explore the Basilica de Guadalupe

The Basilica de Guadalupe is a famous Catholic church and shrine that attracts thousands of pilgrims each year from all over Mexico. Visit the basilica and shrine, which were built on the spot where the Virgin of Guadalupe appeared to Juan Diego in 1531.

The old basilica, constructed from 1695-1709, began to sink, leading to the construction of the new basilica from 1974-1976. Remember to dress respectfully during your visit, as it is a place of worship.

Marvel at the Soumaya Museum

The Soumaya Museum is a remarkable art museum housing a collection of 66,000 pieces from Central America and Europe. It showcases works by famous artists such as Diego Rivera, Rufino Tamayo, Botticelli, Dalí, and Rodin.

The museum considered the most beautiful modern building in Mexico City, was donated and constructed by Mexican business magnate Carlos Slim Helú. The stunning building features 16,000 aluminum hexagonal tiles. Admission is free.

Attend a Lucha Libre Show

Lucha libre, Mexican free wrestling, is a popular local pastime. It’s a highly entertaining and affordable experience where you can watch wrestlers perform acrobatic moves and engage with the enthusiastic crowd.

Grab a beer or a shot of tequila, and get ready to cheer (or jeer) in Spanish. Remember not to look away during the match, as unexpected surprises often occur. Look for ticket booths with signs saying “tequila” to ensure you’re paying the correct price.

Visit the UNAM Botanical Garden

If you need a break from the bustling city, the Botanical Garden at the National Autonomous University of Mexico offers a serene escape. Inspired by Aztec garden traditions, the garden focuses on conservation and environmental education.

Explore the naturally formed grottoes, ponds, and waterfalls, which were created around lava formations from the Xitle volcano eruption.

The garden boasts an impressive collection of cacti (800 different kinds), ponds with koi and turtles, an orchidarium, and a medicinal garden. Keep an eye out for various wildlife species. Admission is free.

1 USD = approx. 17-19 MXN (2023)

When it comes to accommodation, Mexico City offers a range of options to fit different budgets. Hostels are a popular choice among backpackers, with prices starting at around 300 MXN per night for a bed in a dormitory.

Private rooms for two people range from 600 to 1,900 MXN per night. Budget hotels are another option, with two-star rooms starting at around 300 MXN and three-star hotels ranging from 500 to 900 MXN per night.

If you prefer the comfort of an Airbnb, prices for private rooms typically start at 220 MXN per night, while entire homes and apartments start at 700 MXN. It’s recommended to book in advance for better deals.

When it comes to food, Mexico City is a haven for gastronomic delights. Street stalls and markets offer authentic and affordable options. Tacos, quesadillas, sopas, and tortas are typically priced between 15 and 45 MXN.

For a cheap meal at a restaurant, you can expect to spend around 150 MXN. Look for local establishments filled with locals for the best culinary experiences. Fast food options like McDonald’s cost around 130 MXN for a combo meal, while pizza starts at 400 MXN.

If you’re a coffee lover, a latte or cappuccino will cost around 55 MXN. It’s important to note that tap water is not safe to drink in Mexico City, so using a portable water purifier or opting for bottled water is recommended.

If you plan to cook your own meals, grocery costs can range from 500 to 585 MXN per week for essentials such as rice, vegetables, chicken, tortillas, and beans.

Considering the affordability and variety of street food, it’s often more convenient to indulge in local delicacies rather than cooking.

Mexico City Travel Guide: Money-Saving Tips

Mexico City offers many opportunities to save money and keep your budget intact. Here are some tips:

Eat street food: Enjoy affordable and delicious meals by trying the street food at markets or from local vendors. Look for places where you see children eating as an indication of quality and safety.

Stay with a local: Consider using Couchsurfing to stay with locals who offer free beds or couches. It not only reduces your accommodation costs but also allows you to connect with locals and gain insider tips.

Join a free walking tour: Take advantage of free walking tours to learn about the city’s history and must-see sights. Estacion Mexico Free Tours offers a historic downtown tour that can provide valuable insights.

Opt for rideshares: Use Uber instead of taxis for transportation as it tends to be cheaper and more convenient.

Drink less at bars: While alcohol is affordable in Mexico City, it can add up quickly if consumed at bars and clubs. Consider purchasing your alcohol from local stores for a more budget-friendly option.

Utilize public transit: Take advantage of the city’s public transportation system, which is cost-effective and efficient. Get a rechargeable Smartcard to use on the metro and metro buses.

Bring a water filter: Since tap water is not safe to drink, save money on bottled water and reduce plastic waste by using a water bottle with a built-in filter, such as LifeStraw, to ensure clean and safe drinking water.

By implementing these money-saving tips, you can make the most of your visit to Mexico City without breaking the bank.

1 USD = approx. 17-19 MXN (2023)

For backpackers, a daily budget of around 1,050 MXN is reasonable. This budget covers accommodation in a hostel dorm, street food, and self-cooked meals, public transportation, and a few daily attractions such as museums and galleries.

If you plan to dine out more frequently or enjoy drinks, adding an extra 100 MXN per day is recommended.

On a mid-range budget of approximately 1,900 MXN per day, you can upgrade to a private hostel room or Airbnb, enjoy meals at cheap traditional restaurants, visit more attractions, indulge in a few drinks, and occasionally take taxis for transportation.

With a “luxury” budget of 3,800 MXN or more per day, you can stay at a hotel, dine out for all your meals, enjoy ample drinks, rely on taxis for transportation, and participate in guided trips and tours.

It’s important to note that the sky’s the limit when it comes to luxury in Mexico City, and budgets can exceed this starting point.

Getting around Mexico City is made easy with several transportation options:

Public transportation: The subway system, known as the metro, is the best way to navigate the city efficiently. Despite being busy and crowded, it offers a convenient mode of transport.

Purchase a rechargeable smart card at any metro station for 16 MXN, which includes the first 5 MXN tickets.

This card can be used for both the metro and metro buses. City buses are another option, with a fare of 6 MXN per ride. Additionally, microbuses, privately-run vehicles, are available at a cost of 2.50-4 MXN per ticket.

Turibus: Turibus is a popular hop-on hop-off tourist bus with four routes in Mexico City. It provides an opportunity to familiarize yourself with the city and explore areas of interest. A 1-day ticket on weekdays costs 160 MXN, while on weekends it is priced at 180 MXN.

Bicycles: EcoBici is a bike-sharing program that offers rentals in Mexico City. The first 45 minutes of use are free, with subsequent hours charged at 25 MXN per hour and an additional 50 MXN for each subsequent hour. A full day of bike rental costs 118 MXN.

After your ride, you can return the bike to any kiosk with an available dock, indicated by a green light.

Taxis: Taxis are readily available in Mexico City, and fares start around 25 MXN with an additional 16 MXN per kilometer.

It’s advisable to take taxis from designated taxi stands outside hotels or restaurants, as these are authorized and considered safer than hailing a taxi on the street.

Ride-sharing: Uber operates in Mexico City and is a convenient and often cheaper alternative to traditional taxis.

Car rental: Driving in Mexico City can be challenging due to heavy traffic and aggressive drivers. It is generally not recommended unless necessary. If you choose to rent a car, prices range from 800 to 900 MXN per day for multi-day rentals.

To find the best car rental deals, consider using Discover Cars.

By utilizing these transportation options, you can easily navigate Mexico City and explore its various attractions and neighborhoods.

Deciding when to visit Mexico City depends on your preferences and the festivals you’d like to experience. Here are some details about different seasons and celebrations:

Summer (June to October): Mexico City experiences its rainy season during these months, especially in the central part of the country.

While heavy downpours occur daily, they are usually brief. In the northern region, rainfall is minimal, while high humidity is prevalent in the south and coastal areas. Temperatures range from 26 to 32°C.

April to June: These months are typically the hottest, with average temperatures reaching a high of 27°C. It’s worth noting that this period is also one of the busiest times for tourism, so it’s advisable to book accommodations well in advance.

Semana Santa: One of Mexico’s most significant holidays, Semana Santa (Holy Week) occurs the week before Easter.

During this time, a re-enactment of the crucifixion takes place. It’s a popular time for travel, and if you plan to visit Mexico City during Semana Santa, be prepared for larger crowds and higher demand for accommodations.

Día de la Independencia: Celebrated on September 16th, Día de la Independencia is Mexico’s Independence Day. Festivities begin the night before in Mexico City’s Zócalo, featuring fireworks and vibrant celebrations.

It’s essential to note that this is Mexico’s independence day, distinct from Cinco de Mayo, which commemorates the Battle of Puebla and is celebrated more prominently in the state of Puebla, south of Mexico City.

Día de Muertos (Day of the Dead): In November, Mexico comes alive with the vibrant celebrations of Día de Muertos. During this time, locals honor their deceased loved ones through all-night vigils, visits to cemeteries, and the creation of intricate sugar skulls.

Mexico City hosts memorable festivities, including parties and parades. It’s highly recommended to book accommodations well in advance if you plan to visit during this time, as the city tends to fill up quickly, and prices may rise.

Consider your preferred weather, tolerance for crowds, and interest in specific festivals when planning your visit to Mexico City.

Ensuring your safety while visiting Mexico City is essential. While media coverage may portray the city as dangerous, the reality is that many areas are safe for tourists. Petty theft, such as bag snatching, is common, so it’s important to remain vigilant.

Avoid neighborhoods like Tepito and Iztapalapa known for higher crime rates, and be cautious in crowded markets where pickpockets may target unsuspecting individuals. Blend in with the locals and keep your valuables secure and out of sight.

Engage with locals who are often friendly and helpful. If you have concerns about a particular neighborhood, seek advice from locals who can provide insights into its safety.

Mexico City comes alive at night, with bustling streets and people around. This presence of activity can contribute to a safer environment as there are more eyes watching out for potential crime.

Areas like Condesa, Roma Norte, and Juarez are generally safe for tourists, but it’s always wise to exercise caution and follow standard safety precautions, especially when walking alone at night.

Solo female travelers can feel relatively safe in Mexico City, but it’s advisable to take extra precautions, especially at night. Follow common safety guidelines such as avoiding walking alone while intoxicated and never leaving drinks unattended.

Many solo female travel blogs offer specific tips for added security.

Be aware of common scams that target tourists, such as fake ATMs, taxis without meters, and questionable tour operators. Stay alert and exercise caution when dealing with unfamiliar services.

In case of emergencies, dial 911 for immediate assistance.

It’s important to note that tap water in Mexico City is not safe to drink. To avoid single-use plastic bottles, consider using a LifeStraw or other water filtration system to purify your water and ensure its safety.

Always trust your instincts and be mindful of your surroundings. Avoid isolated areas, especially at night. Make copies of your important documents, including your passport and identification.

Lastly, obtaining comprehensive travel insurance is highly recommended.

Travel insurance provides coverage for medical emergencies, theft, cancellations, and other unforeseen events. It offers peace of mind and protection in case of any unfortunate incidents during your trip.

The Historic Center with the Zócalo esplanade could be considered the nerve center of Mexico City, reality shows us that wherever we go, the city throbs with people, hustle and bustle, and life.

Zócalo is the third in dimensions in the world. On one side the National Palace is elegant and a necessary visit to almost read the History of Mexico with the murals by Diego Rivera that relate the important moments of the creation of the Mexican nation.

In the northern part of the Zócalo stands the other great building on the esplanade, the Metropolitan Cathedral, immense, majestic and whose temporary construction arc, which spans from 1573 to 1813, makes it almost unclassifiable in terms of style.

The baroque façade looks out onto the Zócalo with the Metropolitan Tabernacle attached.

Behind the cathedral, leaving the Zócalo, the Templo Mayor of Huitzilopochtli passed almost hidden for centuries, a ceremonial site and today an interesting museum that clarifies what the appearance of Tenochtitlan, the city on the lagoon, was like.

Walking west from the Zócalo, that is, towards Chapultepec, you can choose between Tacuba or Avenida Madero streets to stop at some famous buildings, such as the Esmeralda Building (headquarters of the Estanquillo Museum), the Iturbide Palace and the Casa de los Azulejos in the first street or the Palacio de la Minería y Correos in the second.

Before reaching the avenue, you will see the Latin American Tower, which is 160 meters tall and was for a long time the tallest and most charismatic building. You can go up to its viewpoint to get a wonderful view of Mexico City.

The Palace of Fine Arts, in the Plaza de la Alameda, is home to the homonymous museum and the National Museum of Architecture. The work of the Italian architect Adamo Boari during the Porfiriato, at the beginning of the 20th century, the performance of the National Folkloric Ballet is one of the most impressive shows in the capital, showing the typical dances of each region of Mexico.

Just a step away, and hardly perceptible to the eye, is the Diego Rivera Mural Museum, known as the Alameda Museum, which was moved here after the 1985 earthquake from the Hotel del Prado, its original location. Dense and loaded with historical allusions, the mural reflects everyday life in Alameda Park.

From the Alameda, if we cross some streets to the north we can find Plaza Garibaldi, where the Mariachis sing their rancheras.

In the same square, the El Museo del Tequila y el Mezcal.

To the south of the Alameda, on a getaway, Mercado de San Juan appears, where you can find any condiment in the world. Although it is becoming more and more touristy, it has not lost that traditional market charm.

In the Plaza de la República, between the great avenues of Insurgentes and Reforma, you can see the Monument of the Revolution. This monument was actually going to be part of the central body of a gigantic Capitol for Parliament.

It is worth knowing its history in the small museum that shows us the exaggerated architectural pretensions that motivated its construction. The panoramic elevator allows us to go up to see the Plaza de la Revolución and some nearby buildings from the top, such as the Jai Alai fronton.

Once you reach Paseo de la Reforma, the avenue becomes wide and busy, leading us through a boulevard built in the time of Maximilian I in the Parisian style, in which the sculptures of Colón, Cuacuhtémoc, the Angel of Independence, and Diana the Huntress following one after another.

In the Chapultepec forest, in addition to the aforementioned museums, thousands of people escape from the madding crowd and traffic to spend a few hours in the lush forest.

The zoo and the lake with its rowboats are two of the areas where people concentrate, who also go to ride their bikes, run or rollerblade and escape for a while from the noise of Mexico City.

Quite a bit further south, without leaving the great avenue of Insurgentes, you can see the Polyforum Siqueiros.

This great work of David Alfaro Siqueiros is recognized as the largest in the world. Its interior is harmonized by the light show that tells us the history of this work of art.

In Xochimilco, the jovial atmosphere reigns. This “Mexican Venice” is the only thing that remains of the extensive lake where the pre-Columbian city was based.

The Ciudad Universitaria is also postulated as a good place to spend a morning getting to know some of its charms, among which are the Olympic Stadium, the site of the 1968 games in Mexico City, the Universum or Museum of Sciences, the Rectory Building of the UNAM, or the Nezahualcoyotl room where you can listen to some of the best classical music concerts in America.

If you have more time, you should not miss a visit to the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso, where there is a selection of murals, including the first one painted by Diego Rivera, Cineteca Nacional or the National Auditorium.

In addition to the museums, there are countless free excursions that range from simply walking the streets, squares, and parks of Mexico City, photographing the monuments, or the thousand curious pictures that a city in constant movement offers us.

At night the most popular neighborhoods such as Colonia Roma or La Condesa roar with the Mexican march, a party for all audiences and until dawn.

Coyoacán offers restaurants of any gastronomy in the world, in a pleasant atmosphere where you can walk around having ice cream with the moon as a witness.

How to get around Mexico City is one of the main questions for every traveler who comes to the capital. And it should not be neglected because it is vital both save time and to avoid dangerous situations.

Mexico City is so big that we have to think twice about the distance before we dare to walk. On the other hand, there are areas where it is not recommended to walk, and public transport or taxi can save us time and provide us with more security.

The metro offers a very extensive network of lines. Its economic price makes it the best option for long trips. Each metro station is assigned an icon that identifies it, which gives it an original touch.

There are parts of the platform for the exclusive use of women and minors, clearly identified and often coordinated by the police, which serve to scare off abusers.

For when the subway does not offer us a comfortable option due to the distance from stations, buses (here called trucks) or light rail can help us connect our origin and destination. It should be borne in mind that public buses suffer the same problem as cars and taxis, that is, overwhelming traffic with insufferable traffic jams.

There are small vans, known as peseras or combis that cover a multitude of routes, and are an alternative to buses.

The taxi is something very recurrent, useful to link parts of the city that the subway does not cover, or that need several connections.

The old fleet of green and white “bocho” (Volkswagen beetle) taxis has been replaced by new maroon and gold models, and more recently pink and white, more modern and less polluting.

Mexico City has hotels for all tastes, with accommodations spread throughout the city. The normal thing is to stay in accommodations located in the center, near the Zócalo, or next to the large avenues such as Reforma or Insurgentes.

Another option is to look for accommodation in the Coyoacán neighborhood, quiet, safe, and with many attractions.

Planning to visit Mexico from the USA or continue your trip from Mexico to the USA being a non-US citizen?

Get your ESTA visa at the earliest

In this case, you should apply for an ESTA visa online as soon as possible. An ESTA visa is a digital travel authorization granted to tourists who plan to stay in the United States for not more than 90 days.

Obtaining ESTA access is necessary for citizens of countries who can travel to the U.S. under the visa waiver program. If you are wondering should you need one, here is what you need to know.

ESTA is suitable for short tours and business trips. It is valid for up to two years and facilitates multiple entries within that period. After the expiry, you can renew the ESTA for another visit.

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In this place have been found a significant Aztec finds, such as a sacrificial altar in the shape of a plumed serpent.

The earliest known structure on the site was the Convent of Santa Isabel, whose church was built in 1680.

The convent area suffered frequent flooding during the early colonial period and development here grew slowly.

In spite of this, the convent remained until it was forcibly closed in the 1860s by the Reform Laws. It was replaced by a textile mill and lower-class housing.

A section of this housing, on Santa Isabel Alley, was torn down and replaced by the National Theater in the latter 19th century. During the late 19th century and very early 20th, this theatre was the site of most of Mexico City’s high culture, presenting events such as theatre, operettas, Viennese dance and more.

It was then decided to replace this building with a more opulent one for the upcoming Centennial of Mexican Independence celebrations in 1910.

The old theatre was demolished in 1901, and the new theatre would be called the Gran Teatro de Ópera. The work was awarded to Italian architect Adamo Boari, who favored neoclassical and art nouveau styles and who is responsible for the Palacio del Correo which is across the street. Adamo Boari promised in October 1904 to build a grand metallic structure, which at that time only existed in the United States, but not to this size.

The first stone of the building was placed by Porfirio Díaz in 1904. Despite the 1910 deadline, by 1913, the building was hardly begun with only a basic shell. One reason for this is that the project became more complicated than anticipated as the heavy building sank into the soft spongy subsoil. The other reason was the political and economic instability that would lead to the Mexican Revolution. Full hostilities suspended construction of the palace completely and Adamo Boari returned to Italy.

The project would sit unfinished for about twenty years. In 1932, construction resumed under Mexican architect Federico Mariscal. Mariscal completed the interior but updated it from Boari’s plans to the more modern Art Deco style. The building was completely finished in 1934, and was inaugurated on 29 September of that year.[

The inaugural work presented in the theatre was “La Verdad Sospechosa” by Juan Ruiz de Alarcón in 1934. In 1946, the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (National Institute of the Fine Arts) was created as a government agency to promote the arts and was initially housed at the Museo Nacional de Artes Plásticas, the Museo del Libro and other places. It is now at the Palacio.

In this theatre, Maria Callas debuted in the opera Norma in 1950.

In 2002, the Palace was the scene of the funeral of María Félix.

Since its initial construction, very little has been updated or modified. However, intensive renovation efforts were begun in 2009 for the upcoming 2010 celebrations. Much of the equipment and machinery is original from the early 20th century. Much of the technological equipment is being updated, especially in the theatre which needs computerized lights, sound systems and other improvements. Other work will improve acoustics. Upgrades to the theatre will allow for multimedia shows which were not available before. The main hall has had no renovation or upgrade work since it opened in 1934. Renovations here will lessen the number of people the hall can accommodate but should make the area more comfortable.

The palace has a mixture of a number of architectural styles; however, it is principally Art Nouveau and Art Deco. Art Nouveau dominates the exterior, which was done by Adamo Boari, and the inside is dominated by Art Deco, which was completed by Federico Mariscal.

Since construction began in 1904, the theater (which opened in 1934) has sunk some four meters into the soft soil of Mexico City.

The main facade, which faces Avenida Juárez, is made of white Italian Carrara marble. In the interior of the portal are sculptures by Italian Leonardo Bistolfi. It consists of “Harmony”, surrounded by “Pain”, “Rage”, “Happiness”, “Peace” and “Love”.

Another portion of the facade contains cherubs and sculptures representing music and inspiration.

On the plaza front of the building, designed by Boari, there are four Pegasus sculptures which were made by Catalan Agustí Querol Subirats. These had been in the Zocalo before being brought here.

The roof covering the center of the building is made of crystal designed by Hungarian Géza Maróti and depicts the muses with Apollo.

One aspect of the Palace which has since disappeared is the “Pergola”, which was located in the Alameda. It was constructed to house pictorial exhibitions for the 1910 celebrations, but it was demolished in 1973.

The interior is also surfaced in Carrara marble. It divides into three sections: the main hall with adjoining smaller exhibition halls, the theatre and the offices of the “Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes”.

The main hall is covered by the Marotti glass and iron roof. It and the balconies of all three upper floors can be seen from the ground floor below.

In areas of the main hall, pre-Hispanic motifs done in Art Deco style, such as serpents’ heads on window arches and Maya Chaac masks on the vertical light panels distinguish this interior from its contemporaries.

The smaller exhibition halls are located on the first and second floors.

The first floor is decorated with crystal lamps, created by Edgar Brandt and hold murals by Rufino Tamayo. The Adamo Boari and Manuel M. Ponce halls hold music and literature events.

And the National and International halls are for exhibitions.

The second floor has smaller exhibition halls as well as murals by José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Diego Rivera, Jorge González Camarena, Roberto Montenegro and Manuel Rodríguez Lozano.

The third floor is occupied by the Museum of Architecture. The ironwork was designed in Italy by Alessandro Mazzucotelli and in Mexico by Luis Romero Soto.

At the entrance of the theatre, there are mascarons in bronze with depictions of Tlaloc, and Chaac, the Aztec and Maya deities of water, which along with the rest were designed by Gianette Fiorenzo.

On the arch over the stage there are representations of various mythological personas such as the Muses with Apollo. This was constructed in Hungary in the workshops of Géza Maróti.

However, the most impacting aspect is the stage “curtain” which is a stained glass foldable panel created out of nearly a million pieces of iridescent colored glass by Tiffany’s in New York.

This stage curtain is the only one of its type in any opera house in the world and weighs 24 tons. The design of the curtain has the volcanos Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl in the center. Around them is a Mexican landscape surrounded by images of sculptures from Yautepec and Oaxaca. This design was inspired by work done by artist Gerardo Murillo. The theatre has a capacity of 1,000.

The Palace has been the scene of some of the most notable events in music, dance, theatre, opera and literature and has hosted important exhibitions of painting, sculpture and photography.

It has hosted some of the biggest names from both Mexico and abroad. It has hosted poetry events as well as those related to popular culture. Artists and companies are from all parts of Mexico and abroad. It has been called the “Cathedral of Art in Mexico” and is considered to be the most important theatre and the most important cultural center in Mexico.

It was declared an artistic monument in 1987 by UNESCO.

The building is administered by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes of the federal government.

The palace receive on average 10,000 visitors each week.

Two of the best-known groups which regularly perform here are the Ballet Folklórico de México Compania Nacional de Opera de Bellas Artes and the National Symphonic Orchestra. The first performs in the theatre twice a week and is a spectacle of pre and post Hispanic dance of Mexico.

A typical program includes Aztec ritual dances, agricultural dances from Jalisco, a fiesta in Veracruz, a wedding celebration — all accompanies by mariachis, marimba players and singers.

Regular annual events include the Premio Quorum for Mexican designers in graphic and industrial materials and the Premios Ariel for Mexican films.

Individual events that have been held here are numerous. Some of these include several exhibitions of Frida Kahlo’s work and a number of appearances by Luciano Pavarotti.

In 1987, Bellas Artes hosted a legendary performance of Jesusa Rodríguez’s Donna Giovanni, an adaptation of Mozart’s opera with a female cast.

Other appearances have been made by Mexican baritone Jorge Lagunes (2002) and Catalan guitarist Joan Manuel Serrat (2003).

Events that have been held here include “ABCDF Palabras de Ciudad” (2002) showing life in popular housing in photographs and video, “Bordados del Mexico Antiguo” (“Embroidery of Old Mexico”) showing processes, history and design,[13] Rem Koolhaas Premio Pritzker 2000″ conference and “Exchanging Views: Visions of Latin America” which was an exhibit from the collection of Patricia Phelps de Cisneros comprising 148 works by 72 artists from across Latin America in 2006.

Occasionally, the plaza in front of the Palace is the scene of protests such as those against the Iraq War in 2003 and against bullfighting in 2010.

The floors between the ground floor and the uppermost floor are dominated by a number of murals painted by most of the famous names of Mexican muralism.

On the 2nd floor are two early-1950s works by Rufino Tamayo: México de Hoy (“Mexico Today”) and Nacimiento de la Nacionalidad (“Birth of Nationality”), a symbolic depiction of the creation of the mestizo (person of mixed indigenous and Spanish ancestry) identity.

At the west end of the 3rd floor is El hombre controlador del Universo (“Man, controller of the Universe” – known as Man at the Crossroads), originally commissioned for New York’s Rockefeller Center in 1933.

The mural depicts a variety of technological and societal themes (such as the discoveries made possible by microscopes and telescopes) and was controversial for its inclusion of Lenin and a Soviet May Day parade.

The Rockefellers were not happy with the painting and the incomplete work was eventually destroyed and painted over. Rivera recreated it here in 1934.

On the north side of the third floor are David Alfaro Siqueiros’ three-part La Nueva Democracía (“New Democracy”) and Rivera’s four-part Carnaval de la Vida Mexicana (“Carnival of Mexican Life”); to the east is José Clemente Orozco’s La Katharsis (Catharsis), depicting the conflict between humankind’s ‘social’ and ‘natural’ aspects.

The Museo del Palacio de Bellas Artes (“Museum of the Palacio de Bellas Artes”) is the organization that takes care of the permanent murals and other artwork in the building as well as arrange temporary exhibits. These exhibits cover a wide range of media and feature Mexican and international artists, focusing on classical and contemporary artists.

Museo Nacional de Arquitectura

The Museo Nacional de Arquitectura (Museum of Architecture) occupies the top floor of the building, covered by the glass and iron roof. It contains exhibitions from renowned Mexican architects including models, designs and photographs of major works.

The museum also arranges temporary exhibitions of its collections in other facilities to expose the Mexican public to the country’s rich architectural heritage. Some of the major architects featured at the museum include Jaime Ortiz Monasterio, Carlos Mijares Bracho, Adamo Boari and Luis Barragán.

The museum is divided into four sections called “Arquitectura-contrastes: Jaime Ortiz Monasterio y Carlos Mijares Bracho”, “Corpus Urbanístico de la Ciudad de México”, “Teatro Nacional de México (Plano original)” and “Teatro Nacional de México”. There are also temporary exhibits on contemporary architecture.

Many think it was the first skyscraper in Mexico. However, skyscrapers may have first appeared in Mexico City between 1910 and 1935.

The tallest of the time, the International Capital Building (Edificio Internacional de Capitalización) was completed in 1935. This building was surpassed by the Edificio Miguel E. Abed, which, in turn, was surpassed by the Latinoamericana Tower.

The Latinoamericana Tower opened its doors on April 30, 1956. The Torre Latinoamericana was built to headquarters in La Latinoamericana, Seguros, S.A., an insurance company founded on April 30, 1906.

The site where the Latin American Tower currently stands was formerly occupied by the animal house of the Tlatoani Mexica Moctezuma II, and after the conquest, there was built Convent of San Francisco.

The building took its name from this company as it began to be built during the postwar boom of the late 1940s, which lasted until the early 1970s.

At the time of its construction, the insurance company was controlled by the Mexican tycoon Miguel S. Macedo, who headed one of Mexico’s largest financial consortiums at the time.

Originally the insurance company occupied a smaller building at the same location. In 1947 it temporarily relocated to a nearby office while the tower was built.

Once it was finished in 1956, the insurance company moved into the tower’s 4th to 8th floors. The rest of the building’s office space was for lease.

At the time of its completion, the Torre Latinoamericana was the 45th tallest building in the world. It was also the tallest building in Latin America and the fourth in height in the world outside New York.

Its public observation deck on the 44th floor is the highest in Mexico City.

The project was designed and executed by Mexican civil engineers. Its design consists of steel-frame construction and deep-seated piles, which were necessary given Mexico City’s frequent earthquakes and muddy soil composition, which makes the terrain tricky to build on.

Before construction, engineers carried out several soil mechanics studies on the construction site and designed the structure accordingly. Today this is common and even mandatory practice, but at the time it was quite an innovation.

The tower gained notoriety when it withstood the magnitude 7.9 1957 earthquake, thanks to its outstanding design and strength.

This feat garnered its recognition in the form of the American Institute of Steel Construction Award of Merit for “the tallest building ever exposed to a huge seismic force” (as is attested by plaques in the building’s lobby and observation deck).

However, an even greater test came, by far, with the magnitude 8.1 September 19, 1985 earthquake, which destroyed many buildings in Mexico City, especially the ones built downtown, in the tower’s neighborhood.

The Torre Latinoamericana withstood this force without problems and has thus become a symbol of safety in Mexico City. Today the tower is considered one of the safest buildings in the city despite its potentially dangerous location.

While it was being built, detractors said that there was no way a building of that size could withstand one of Mexico City’s earthquakes.

The truth is that during the September 1985 earthquake, which took place at 07:19 in the morning, Adolfo Zeevaert, one of the engineers of the tower, was inside his office on the 25th floor.

From that vantage point, he was able to witness the destruction taking place while several buildings collapsed and the dust cloud that followed, all the while feeling the movement inside the tower.

It could arguably be said that it was the first time that a builder and designer of a tall building witnessed firsthand its behavior during a powerful earthquake.

The tower is now co-owned by its original builder La Latinoamericana, Seguros, Inmobiliaria Torre Latinoamericana, a real estate firm. In 2002 seven of the 44 floors were purchased by Telcel and Banco Inbursa, both firms controlled by Mexican businessman Carlos Slim.

In 2006, the tower celebrated its 50th anniversary.

A ceremony was held on April 30, 2006, which included the reopening of the newly remodeled 37th to 44th floors, a site museum, and a fully remodeled Mirador, or observation deck, designed by Danish-born architect Palle Seiersen Frost.

Also on that occasion were unveiled some recognitions granted by several architectural, engineering, and communications institutions.

The Torre Latinoamericana contains the FM transmission facilities for Radio Fórmula’s two FM stations in Mexico City, XERFR-FM 103.3 and XEDF-FM 104.1.

Plans for the tower include a facelift, which will remodel the building’s exteriors using new materials while maintaining the original design and look; since the tower is considered a historical monument, its exterior look cannot be altered.

• The building was featured in a photograph by Mexican photographer Enrique Metinides when a suicidal man climbed out onto the ledge of the 27th floor in 1993. A Red Cross worker managed to prevent her death.
• The tower can be briefly seen from inside a helicopter during the beginning of Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet.
• It’s also featured prominently in “Sólo con Tu Pareja” (“Only with your partner”), a 1991 Mexican film by Alfonso Cuarón.
• As a fixture of the Mexico City skyline, the tower also appears in the opening scene of “Amores Perros”, a 2000 Mexican crime drama film directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu and written by Guillermo Arriaga.
• The tower is seen in Spectre (2015) after James Bond hijacks a helicopter by killing a hired assassin and the pilot.

During the celebration of the centenary of Independence in 1910, only the current column of the “Angel” was built and, according to other versions, the roundabout where the palm tree was located would be reserved.

The reserve roundabout was for a monument to commemorate the next Independence anniversary. But with the Revolution, all plans changed, and Mexico City began to overgrow, especially in the mid-20th century.

The Paseo de la Reforma had several changes, such as its expansion.

In the late 1970s, eliminated the roundabout that was about the entrance of the Chapultepec forest, in which years before they had placed the Diana Huntress, to change it to a place where no one saw it, so, a decade later, they returned it to the roundabout where it is currently.

But the palm was not moved. For over 100 years, no one remembered that the palm was a place reserved for a monument. The palm stood there for more than 100 years. The first photo with the palm dates from 1920.

Passersby did not even notice the presence of the palm tree. And when the question arose about building a monument for the 200th anniversary of Independence, no one thought about placing it in the reserved place.

Although the palm was already a part of Mexico City, it has had its detractors throughout history, such as those who criticized that it was not a native tree and that the prickly pear cactus should be planted there instead.

On April 24, 2022, the iconic palm of more than 100 years was removed due to sickness from various fungi and bacteria.

Public voting began on Monday, April 25, to select a new tree to replace the palm. Voting lasted 6 days. After the voting ended, it was announced that the new tree would be Ahuehuete, with 77,485 people voting for it.

Ahuehuete, Mexico’s national tree, is also known as Montezuma Cypress.

Glorieta de los Desaparecidos

Since the palm was removed, the roundabout became an organizing point for relatives of missing people who demanded the location of their loved ones and requested to change its name to Roundabout of the Disappeared.

Glorieta del Ahuehuete – The Ahuehuete Roundabout

On June 5th at 12:30 in the morning, the Ahuehuete tree was planted.

However, the Ahuehuete tree failed to adapt to the conditions of Paseo de la Reforma. After remaining less than a year, the Ahuehuete failed to adapt. The ahuehuete tree was removed early on 11.03.2023 morning.

The second Ahuehuete

Two months later, another Ahuehuete was planted to replace the first one. The second Ahuehuete faced challenges, intentional damage with cement placed at its base and a heatwave, affecting its growth and adaptation.

Experts are closely monitoring the development of the second Ahuehuete tree, noting that it is growing slowly and has difficulty adapting. The tree is expected to take longer to recover and adapt to its new environment.

How is the Ahuehuete tree today?

The tree is in good health condition. Monitoring and surveillance work continues.

Construction of the Column of Independence topped by a depiction of winged victory was ordered in 1900 by President Porfirio Díaz.

Antonio Rivas Mercado began to design the monument, envisioned as a column with both classical and modern elements, with bronze statues at its base. The foundation stone was laid on January 2, 1902.

Placed in it is a gold chest with a record of independence and a series of coins minted in that epoch.

But in May 1906, when the foundations were built and 2,400 stones were placed to a height of 25 m, the sides of the monument collapsed, so Díaz created a study commission composed of engineers Guillermo Beltrán y Puga, Manuel Marroquín y Rivera, and Gonzalo Garita.

The commission determined that the foundations of the monument were poorly planned, so it was decided to demolish the structure.

The work was restarted under the supervision of a steering committee composed of engineers Beltran y Puga, Marroquin y Rivera, and the architect Manuel Gorozpe, leaving the artwork in the care of architect Antonio Rivas Mercado.

All the sculptures were made by Italian artist Enrique Alciati.

One of the faces in the doors is of one of Rivas Mercado’s daughters, Antonieta.

The monument was completed in time for the festivities to commemorate the first hundred years of Mexican Independence in 1910.

The inauguration was held on 16 September, the 100th anniversary of the Grito de Dolores, the shout by Father Miguel Hidalgo that was considered the initiation of Mexican independence.

The ceremony was attended by President Díaz and many foreign dignitaries. Some 10,000 Mexican soldiers and contingents of foreign military forces helped mark the occasion. The main speaker at the event was Mexican poet Salvador Díaz Mirón.

An eternal flame (Lámpara Votiva) honoring these independence heroes was installed in the base of the column at the order of President Emilio Portes Gil in 1929.

The monument suffered some damage during an earthquake on July 28, 1957, when the sculpture of the Winged Victory fell to the ground and broke into several pieces. Sculptor José Fernández Urbina was in charge of the restoration, which lasted more than a year.

The monument was reopened on September 16, 1958. It survived the devastating earthquake of September 19, 1985, with some damage to the staircases and the reliefs, but none to the Angel.

On August 16, 2019, following feminist demonstrations against gender-based violence and feminicides, the monument was affected due to acts of vandalism and graffiti.

The Government of Mexico City closed access for an indefinite period, but it is estimated that it could be between one to two years.

However, the capital government declared justifying that the closure is due to the restoration, within the framework of a work program in Paseo de la Reforma that involves several more monuments.

In 1925, during the administration of Plutarco Elías Calles, the remains of the following Heroes of the Mexican Independence were interred in a mausoleum under the base of the monument.

At the entrance to the mausoleum is a statue of William Lamport, also known as Don Guillén de Lampart y Guzmán.

He was an Irishman who was tried by the Mexican Inquisition in the mid-17th century, following the discovery of his plot to achieve the independence of New Spain. He was released by the inquisition to secular authorities and executed in the auto de fe of 1659, with his remains forbidden burial in sacred ground.

The actual remains of insurgents are buried in the mausoleum:

• Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla: Chief instigator of independence in 1810 and “Father of the Nation”.
• Father José María Morelos y Pavón: Skilled general and leader of the independence movement after Hidalgo’s execution.
• Ignacio Allende: Lieutenant general of the insurgent army and later rebel leader.
• Juan Aldama: A rebel captain and conspirator.
• José Mariano Jiménez: Hidalgo’s lieutenant colonel.
• Guadalupe Victoria: Commander of the insurgent army and first President of Mexico.
• Vicente Guerrero: Insurgent general following the death of Morelos and second President of Mexico.
• Nicolás Bravo: Commander of the rebel army and later President of Mexico on three occasions.
• Mariano Matamoros: A priest who served as Morelos’s lieutenant general.
• Andrés Quintana Roo: A prominent constitutionalist.
• Leona Vicario: Active supporter of the rebel movement and wife of Andrés Quintana Roo.
• Francisco Javier Mina (Xavier Mina): A Spanish officer who joined the rebel cause against the absolute monarchy of Ferdinand VII.
• Pedro Moreno: Insurgente
• Víctor Rosales: Insurgente

Absent from the mausoleum is Agustín de Iturbide, who achieved Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821; his remains are in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City. President Calles excluded Iturbide when other insurgents’ remains were transferred to the mausoleum in 1925.

More than 60 years after the mausoleum was erected, on September 16, 1998, it was permanently opened to the public by President Ernesto Zedillo and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, Head of Government of the Federal District.

On May 30, 2010, as part of the Bicentennial celebrations of the War of Independence, the remains of the National Heroes were exhumed and then escorted by the Armed Forces with full military honors to the National History Museum in Chapultepec Castle.

There, they were the subject of studies by members of the National Institute of Anthropology and History. After these studies, the remains were temporarily exhibited at the National Palace until August 2011, when they were returned to the mausoleum.

Visitors are allowed to enter the monument, view the memorial plaques at the base level, and climb to the top of the tower.

The entrance is free. To go up people must get a permit at the Cuauhtémoc borough where you must show ID. Groups of no more than 6 are then allowed into the monument for about 15 minutes.

There are 200 stairs, and the climb is arduous. The first approximately 15 stairs, in the base, are wide and comfortable. The stairs in the column itself, approximately 185, are circular, metal, very narrow, and without a landing or resting point until one reaches the top.

Visitors who are not in good physical shape will find the climb exhausting—it is the equivalent of climbing a 14-story building in one go, and those not comfortable with tight spaces should avoid the climb as there is insufficient room to allow others to bypass.

Some areas of the staircase are very dark, and there are only a few slits to let in light. The top balcony, though narrow, offers a commanding view of the wide avenues that surround the column.

The return trip down is by way of the same circular staircase.

More recently El Ángel has become the traditional gathering place for the celebration by Mexico City inhabitants, particularly following Mexico national football team victories and as a focal point for political rallies.

As of March 2016, visiting inside is limited to Saturdays and Sundays from 10:00 to 13:00.

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, the conquistadors decided to build their church on the site of the Templo Mayor of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan to consolidate Spanish power over the newly conquered domain.

Hernán Cortés and the other conquistadors used the stones from the destroyed temple of the Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli, principal deity of the Aztecs, to build the church. Cortés ordered the original church’s construction after he returned from exploring what is now Honduras.

Architect Martín de Sepúlveda was the first director of this project from 1524 to 1532. Juan de Zumárraga, the first Bishop of the first See of the New World, established in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, promoted this church’s completion. Zumárraga’s Cathedral was located in the northeast portion of what is now the cathedral. It had three naves separated by three Tuscan columns. The central roof was ridged with intricate carvings done by Juan Salcedo Espinosa and gilded by Francisco de Zumaya and Andrés de la Concha. The main door was probably of Renaissance style. The choir area had 48 seats made of ayacahuite wood crafted by Adrian Suster and Juan Montaño. However, this church was soon considered inadequate for the growing importance of the capital of New Spain.

In 1544, ecclesiastical authorities in Valladolid ordered the creation of new and more sumptuous cathedral. In 1552, an agreement was reached whereby the cost of the new cathedral would be shared by the Spanish crown, encomenderos and the native inhabitants under the direct authority of the archbishop of New Spain. The cathedral was begun by being built around the existing church in 1573. When enough of the cathedral was built to house basic functions, the original church was demolished to enable construction to continue.

The cathedral was constructed over a period of over two centuries, between 1573 and 1813. Its design is a mixture of three architectural styles that predominated during the colonial period, Renaissance, Baroque and Neo-classic.

Initial plans for the new cathedral were drawn up and work on the foundation began in 1562. The decision to have the cathedral face south instead of the east was made in 1570. In the same year, construction commenced, working from the Gothic designs and models created by Claudio de Arciniega and Juan Miguel de Agüero, inspired by cathedrals found in Spanish cities such as Valladolid and Jaén.

Because of the muddy subsoil of the site, work on the foundation continued past the work on the walls to 1581. In 1585, work on the first of the cathedral’s chapels began and by 1615, the cathedral’s walls reached to about half of their final height.

Construction of the interior of the current cathedral began in 1623 and what is now the vestry was where Mass was conducted after the first church was finally torn down.

In 1629, work was interrupted by flooding, over two metres in depth. Parts of the city were damaged, especially around the main plaza or Zócalo. Because of such damage, this site was almost abandoned and a new cathedral project was begun in the hills of the Tacubaya area to the west.

Despite these problems, the project continued in its current location, and under the direction of Luis Gómez de Transmonte, the interior was finished and consecrated in 1667. The cathedral still lacked bell towers, the complete front facade, and many of the other features it has now at the beginning of the 18th century.

In 1787, José Damian Ortiz de Castro was in charge of finishing work on the cathedral. He did most of the work on the bell towers, putting in most of the fretwork and capping them with roofs in the shape of bells. With his death in 1793, he did not live to see the cathedral completed, and Manuel Tolsá finished the cathedral by adding the cupola, the central front facade, the balustrades, and the statues of Faith, Hope and Charity at the top of the front facade. Tolsa’s work was the last major construction to the cathedral and the appearance it had when he finished is the basic look the cathedral has today.

The cathedral faces south and is approximately 54.5 metres wide and 110 metres long. It consists of two bell towers, a central dome, three main portals, five naves, 51 vaults, 74 arches and 40 columns. Inside the cathedral are five large altars, sixteen chapels, a choir area, a corridor, capitulary room, and sacristy. The cathedral has approximately 150 windows.

Facades and portals

The main facade of the cathedral faces south. The main portal is centered in the main facade and is the highest of the cathedral’s three portals. Statues of Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle stand between the columns of the portal, while Saint Andrew and James the Just are depicted on the secondary doorway. In the center of this doorway is a high relief of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, to whom the cathedral is dedicated.[6] This image is flanked by images of Saint Matthew and Saint Andrew. The coat of arms of Mexico is above the doorway, with the eagle’s wings outstretched. There is a clock tower at the very top of the portal with statues representing Faith, Hope and Charity, which was created by sculptor Manuel Tolsá.

The west facade was constructed in 1688 and rebuilt in 1804. It has a three-section portal with images of the Four Evangelists. The west portal has high reliefs depicting Jesus handing the Keys of Heavens to Saint Peter.

The east facade is similar to the west facade. The reliefs on the east portal show a ship carrying the four apostles, with Saint Peter at the helm.[6] The title of this relief is The ship of the Church sailing the seas of Eternity.

The northern facade, built during the 16th century in the Renaissance Herrera style, is oldest part of the cathedral and was named after Juan de Herrera, architect of the El Escorial monastery in Spain. While the eastern and western facades are older than most of the rest of the building, their third level has Solomonic columns which are associated with the Baroque period.

All the high reliefs of the portals of the cathedral were inspired by the work of Flemish painter Peter Paul Rubens.

Bell towers

The bell towers are the work of Xalapan artist José Damián Ortiz de Castro. They are capped with bell-shaped roofs made of tezontle covered in chiluca, a white stone. Ortiz de Castro was in charge of the cathedral’s costruction in the latter half of the 18th century until he died, unexpectedly. Manuel Tolsá of Valencia, who had built other notable buildings in Mexico City, was hired to finish the cathedral. At this point, the cathedral had already been 240 years in the making. He added the neo-Classic structure housing the clock, the statues of the three theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Charity), the high balustrade surrounding the building, and the dome that rises over the transept.

The cathedral has 25 bells—eighteen hang in the east bell tower and seven in the west tower. The largest bell is named the Santa Maria de Guadalupe and weighs around 13,000 kilograms. Other major bells are named the Doña Maria, which weighs 6,900 kilograms, and La Ronca (“the hoarse one”), named so because of its harsh tone. Doña Maria and La Ronca were placed in 1653 while the largest bell was placed later in 1793.

The statues in the west tower are the work of José Zacarías Cora and represent Pope Gregory VII, Saint Augustine, Leander of Seville, St. Fulgentius of Écija, St.Francis Xavier, and Saint Barbara. The statues in the east tower are by Santiago Cristóbal Sandoval and depict Emilio, Rose of Lima, Mary (mother of Jesus), Ambrogio, Jerome, Philip of Jesus, Hippolytus of Rome, and Isidore the Laborer.

In 1947, a novice bell ringer died in an accident when he tried to move one of the bells while standing under it. The bell swung back and hit him in the head, killing him instantly. The bell was then “punished” by removing the clapper. In the following years, the bell was known as la castigada (“the punished one”), or la muda (“the mute one”). In 2000, the clapper was reinstalled in the bell.

In October 2007, a time capsule was found inside the stone ball base of a cross, in the southern bell tower of the cathedral. It was placed in 1742, supposedly to protect the building from harm. The lead box was filled with religious artifacts, coins and parchments and hidden in a hollow stone ball. The ball was marked with the date of 14 May 1791, when the building’s topmost stone was laid. A new time capsule will be placed in the stone ball when it is closed again.

Tabernacle

Situated to the right of the main cathedral, the Metropolitan Tabernacle (Spanish: Sagrario Metropolitano) was built by Lorenzo Rodríguez during the height of the Baroque period between 1749 and 1760, to house the archives and vestments of the archbishop. It also functioned and continues to function as a place to receive Eucharist and register parishioners.

The first church built on the cathedral site also had a tabernacle, but its exact location is unknown. During the construction of the cathedral, the tabernacle was housed in what are now the Chapels of San Isidro and Our Lady of Agony of Granada. However, in the 18th century, it was decided to build a structure that was separate, but still connected, to the main cathedral. It is constructed of tezontle (a reddish porous volcanic rock) and white stone in the shape of a Greek cross with its southern facade faces the Zócalo. It is connected to the main cathedral via the Chapel of San Isidro.

The interiors of each wing have separate uses. In the west wing is the baptistry, in the north is the main altar, the main entrance and a notary area, separated by inside corner walls made of chiluca stone and tezontle. Chiluca, a white stone, covers the walls and floors and the tezontle frames the doors and windows. At the crossing of the structure is an octagonal dome framed by arches that form curved triangles where they meet at the top of the dome. The principal altar is in the ornate Churrigueresque style and crafted by indigenous artist Pedro Patiño Ixtolinque. It was inaugurated in 1829.

The exterior of the Baroque styled tabernacle is almost entirely adorned with decorations, such as curiously shaped niche shelves, floating drapes and many cherubs. Carvings of fruits such as grapes and pomegranates have been created to in the shape of ritual offerings, symbolizing the Blood of Christ and the Church. Among the floral elements, roses, daisies, and various types of four-petalled flowers can be found, including the indigenous chalchihuite.

The tabernacle has two main outside entrances; one to the south, facing the Zócalo and the other facing east toward Seminario Street. The southern façade is more richly decorated than the east façade. It has a theme of glorifying the Eucharist with images of the Apostles, Church Fathers, saints who founded religious orders, martyrs as well as scenes from the Bible. Zoomorphic reliefs can be found along with the anthropologic reliefs, including a rampaging lion, and the eagle from the coat of arms of Mexico. The east facade is less ambitious, but contains figures from the Old Testament as well as the images of John Nepomucene and Ignacio de Loyola. Construction dates for the phases of the tabernacle are also inscribed here.

High Altar

This disappeared in the forties of the twentieth century. On the occasion of the Jubilee of the year 2000, a new altar table was made to replace the previous one. This was built in modernist style by the architect Ernesto Gómez Gallardo.

Altar of Forgiveness

The Altar of Forgiveness (Altar del perdón) is located at the front of the central nave. It is the first aspect of the interior that is seen upon entering the cathedral. It was the work of Spanish architect Jerónimo Balbás, and represents the first use of the estípite column (an inverted triangle-shaped pilaster) in the Americas.

There are two stories about how the name of this altar came about. The first states that those condemned by the Spanish Inquisition were brought to the altar to ask for forgiveness in the next world before their execution. The second relates to painter Simon Pereyns, who despite being the author of many of the works of the cathedral, was accused of blasphemy. According to the story, while Pereyns was in jail, he painted such a beautiful image of the Virgin Mary that his crime was forgiven.

This altar was damaged by fire in January 1967 but has been completely restored.

Altar of the Kings

The Altar of the Kings (Altar de los Reyes) was also the work of Jerónimo Balbás, in Mexican Baroque or Churrigueresque style. It was begun in 1718 by Balbás[12] in cedar, and was gilded and finished by Francico Martínez, debuting in 1737. It is located at the back of the Cathedral, beyond the Altar of Forgiveness and the choir. This altar is 13.75 metres wide, 25 metres tall and 7.5 metres deep. Its size and depth gave rise to the nickname la cueva dorada (“the golden cave”).

It takes its name from the statues of saintly royalty which form part of its decoration, and is the oldest work in churrigueresque style in Mexico, taking 19 years to complete. At the bottom, from left to right, are six female royal saints: Saint Margaret of Scotland, Helena of Constantinople, Elisabeth of Hungary, Elizabeth of Aragon, Empress Cunegunda and Edith of Wilton. In the middle of the altar are six canonized kings, four of whom are: Hermenegild a Visigoth martyr, Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor, Edward the Confessor and Casimir of Poland. Above these four are Saints Louis of France and Ferdinand III of Castile. In between these kings an oil painting of the Adoration of the Magi by Juan Rodriguez Juarez shows Jesus as the King of kings. The top portion features a painting of the Assumption of Mary as celestial queen flanked by oval bas reliefs, one of Saint Joseph carrying the infant Jesus and the other of Saint Teresa of Ávila with a quill in her hand and the Holy Spirit above her, inspiring her to write. Above this are figures of Jesus and Mary among sculptures of angels crowned with an image of God, the Father.

This altar has been under restoration since 2003.

The Herrera door opens into the sacristy, the oldest part of the cathedral. It is a mixture of Renaissance and Gothic styles.

The walls hold large canvases painted by Cristóbal de Villalpando, such as The Apotheosis of Saint Michael, The Triumph of the Eucharist, The Church Militant and the Church Triumphant, and The Virgin of the Apocalypse. The Virgin of the Apocalypse depicts the vision of John of Patmos. Two other canvases, Entering Jerusalem and The Assumption of the Virgin, painted by Juan Correa, are also here. An additional painting, attributed to Bartolomé Esteban Murillo, hangs in the Sacristy.

On the north wall, there is a niche that holds a statue of the crucifix with a Christ image sculpted in ivory. Behind this, is another mural that depicts the Juan Diego’s of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The Sacristy used to house Juan Diego’s cloak, upon which the Virgin’s image purportedly appears, but after massive flooding in 1629, it was removed from the Sacristy to better protect it.

A cabinet on the west wall of the Sacristy, under the Virgin of the Apocalypse painting, once held golden chalices and cups trimmed with precious stones, as well as other utensils.

In 1957, The wooden floor and platform around the perimeter of the Sacristy were replaced with stone.

Chapels

The cathedral’s sixteen chapels were each assigned to a religious guild, and each is dedicated to a saint. Each of the two side naves contain seven chapels. The other two were created later on the eastern and western sides of the cathedral. These last two are not open to the public. The fourteen chapels in the east and west naves are listed below. The first seven are in the east nave, listed from north to south, and the last seven are in the west nave.

Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada

The Chapel of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada (Spanish: Capilla de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada) was built in the first half of the 17th century, and originally served as the sacristy. It is a medieval-style chapel with a ribbed vault and two relatively simple altarpieces. The narrow altarpiece contains an oval painting of Saint Raphael, Archangel and the young Tobias, a 16th century painting attributed to Flemish painter Maerten de Vos. At the top of this altarpiece is a painting of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, and above this is a painting of the Last Supper. At the back of the chapel is a churrigueresque painting of Our Lady of the Agonies of Granada.

Chapel of Saint Isidore

The Chapel of Saint Isidore (Spanish: Capilla de San Isidro) was originally built as an annex between 1624 and 1627, and was once used as the baptistery. Its vault contains plaster casts representing Faith, Hope, Charity, and Justice, considered to be basic values in the Catholic religion. After the Tabernacle was built, it was converted into a chapel and its door was reworked in a churrigueresque style.

Chapel of the Immaculate Conception

The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception (Spanish: Capilla de la Inmaculada Concepción) was built between 1642 and 1648. It has a churrigueresque altarpiece which, due to the lack of columns, most likely dates from the 18th century. The altar is framed with molding—instead of columns—and a painting of the Immaculate Conception presides over it. The altar is surrounded by paintings by José de Ibarra relating to the Passion of Christ and various saints. The chapel also contains a canvas of Saint Christopher painted by Simon Pereyns in 1588, and the Flagellation by Baltasar de Echave Orio, painted in 1618. The altarpiece on the right side is also dedicated to the Immaculate Conception and was donated by the College of Saints Peter and Paul. This chapel holds the remains of Franciscan friar Antonio Margil de Jesús who was evangelized in what is now the north of Mexico.

Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe

The Chapel of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Capilla de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe) was built in 1660. It was the first baptistery of the cathedral and for a long time was the site for the Brotherhood of the Most Holy Sacrament, which had many powerful benefactors. It is decorated in a 19th century neo-classic style by the architect Antonio Gonzalez Vazquez, director of the Academy of San Carlos. The main altarpiece is dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe and the sides altars are dedicated to John the Baptist and San Luis Gonzaga respectively.

Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua

The Chapel of Our Lady of Antigua (Capilla de Nuestra Señora de La Antigua) was sponsored and built between 1653 and 1660 by a brotherhood of musicians and organists, which promoted devotion to this Virgin. Its altarpiece contains a painting of the Virgin, a copy of one found in the Cathedral of Seville. This copy was brought to New Spain by a merchant. Two other paintings show the birth of the Virgin and her presentation. Both were painted by Nicolás Rodriguez Juárez.

Chapel of Saint Peter

The Chapel of Saint Peter (Spanish: Capilla de San Pedro) was built between 1615 and 1620, and contains three highly decorated Baroque altarpieces from the 17th century. The altar at the back is dedicated to Saint Peter, whose sculpture presides over the altar. It is surrounded by early 17th century paintings relating to his life, painted by Baltasar de Echave Orio. To the right is an altarpiece dedicated to the Holy Family, with two paintings by Juan de Aguilera of Florence called The Holy Family in the workshop of Saint Joseph and Birth of the Savior. The altarpiece to the left of the main altarpiece is dedicated to Saint Theresa of Jesus whose image also appears in the chapel’s window. It includes four paintings on sheets of metal that depict scenes from the birth of Jesus. Five oil paintings illustrate scenes from the life of Saint Theresa, and above this is a semi-circular painting of the coronation of Mary. All these works were created in the 17th century by Baltasar de Echave y Rioja.

This chapel is home to the Niño Cautivo (Captive Child) a Child Jesus figure that was brought to Mexico from Spain. It was sculpted in the 16th century by Juan Martínez Montañez in Spain and purchased by the cathedral. However, on its way to Veracruz, pirates attacked the ship it was on and sacked it. To get the image back, a large ransom was paid. Today, the image is in the Chapel of San Pedro or De las Reliquias. Traditionally, the image has been petitioned by those seeking release from restrictions or traps, especially financial problems or drug addiction or alcoholism. The cult to the Niño Cautivo is considered to be “inactive” by INAH. However, this particular image has made a comeback since 2000 as one to petition when a family member is abducted and held for ransom.

Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries

The Chapel of Christ and of the Reliquaries (Capilla del Santo Cristo y de las Reliquias) was built in 1615 and designed with ultra-Baroque details which are often difficult to see in the poorly lit interior. It was originally known as the Christ of the Conquistadors. That name came from an image of Christ that was supposedly donated to the cathedral by Emperor Charles V. Over time, so many reliquaries were left on its main altar that its name was eventually changed. Of 17th century ornamentation, the main altarpiece alternates between carvings of rich foliage and small heads on its columns in the main portion and small sculptures of angels on its telamons in the secondary portion. Its niches hold sculptures of saints framing the main body. Its crucifix is from the 17th century. The predella is finished with sculptures of angels, and also contains small 17th paintings of martyred saints by Juan de Herrera. Behind these paintings, hidden compartments contain some of the numerous reliquaries left here. Its main painting was done by Jose de Ibarra and dated 1737. Surrounding the altar is a series of paintings on canvas, depicting the Passion of Christ by Jose Villegas, painted in the 17th century. On the right-hand wall, an altar dedicated to the Virgin of the Confidence is decorated with numerous churrigueresque figurines tucked away in niches, columns and top pieces.

Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels

The Chapel of the Holy Angels and Archangels (Capilla de los Ángeles) was finished in 1665 with Baroque altarpieces decorated with Solomonic columns. It is dedicated to the Archangel Michael, who is depicted as a medieval knight. It contains a large main altarpiece with two smaller altarpieces both decorated by Juan Correa. The main altarpiece is dedicated to the seven archangels, who are represented by sculptures, in niches surrounding images of Saint Joseph, Mary and Christ. Above this scene are the Holy Spirit and God the Father. The left-hand altarpiece is of similar design and is dedicated to the Guardian Angel, whose sculpture is surrounded with pictures arranged to show the angelic hierarchy. To the left of this, a scene shows Saint Peter being released from prison, and to the right, Saul, later Saint Paul, being knocked from his horse, painted by Juan Correa in 1714. The right-hand altarpiece is dedicated to the Guardian Angel of Mexico.

Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian

The Chapel of Saints Cosme and Damian (Capilla de San Cosme y San Damián) was built because these two saints were commonly invoked during a time when New Spain suffered from the many diseases brought by the Conquistadors. The main altarpiece is Baroque, probably built in the 17th century. Oil paintings on wood contain scenes from physician saints, and are attributed to painter Sebastian Lopez Davalos, during the second half of the 17th century. The chapel contains one small altarpiece which came from the Franciscan church in Zinacantepec, to the west of Mexico City, and is dedicated to the birth of Jesus.

Chapel of Saint Joseph

The Chapel of Saint Joseph (Capilla de San José), built between 1653 and 1660, contains an image of Our Lord of Cacao, an image of Christ most likely from the 16th century. Its name was inspired from a time when many indigenous worshipers would give their alms in the form of cocoa beans. Churrigueresque in style and containing a graffito statue of Saint Joseph, patron saint of New Spain,[6] the main altarpiece is Baroque and is from the 18th century. This once belonged to the Church of Our Lady of Monserrat. This altar contains statues and cubicles containing busts of the Apostles, but contains no paintings.

Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude

The Chapel of Our Lady of Solitude (Capilla de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad) was originally built in honor of the workers who built the cathedral. It contains three Baroque altarpieces. The main altarpiece is supported by caryatids and small angels as telamons, to uphold the base of the main body. It is dedicated to the Virgin of Solitude of Oaxaca, whose image appears in the center. The surrounding 16th century paintings are by Pedro Ramírez, and depict scenes from the life of Christ.

Chapel of Saint Eligius

The Chapel of Saint Eligius (Capilla de San Eligio), also known as the Chapel of the Lord of Safe Expeditions (Capilla del Señor del Buen Despacho), was built by the first silversmith guild, who donated the images of the Conception and Saint Eligius to whom the chapel was formerly dedicated. The chapel was redecorated in the 19th century, and the image of Our Lord of Good Sending was placed here, named thus, since many supplicants reported having their prayers answered quickly. The image is thought to be from the 16th century and sent as a gift from Charles V of Spain.

Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows

The Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows (Capilla de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores), formerly known as the Chapel of the Lord’s Supper (Capilla de la Santa Cena), was built in 1615. It was originally dedicated to the Last Supper since a painting of this event was once kept here. It was later remodeled in a Neo-classical style, with three altarpieces added by Antonio Gonzalez Velazquez. The main altarpiece contains an image of the Virgin of Sorrows sculpted in wood and painted by Francisco Terrazas, at the request of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. On the left-hand wall a ladder leads to a series of crypts which hold most of the remains of past archbishops of Mexico. The largest and grandest of these crypts contains the remains of Juan de Zumarraga, the first archbishop of Mexico.

Chapel of the Lord of Good dispatch

The Chapel of the Lord of good dispatch (Capilla del Señor del Buen Despacho) was premiered on December 8, 1648 and was dedicated to the silversmiths’ guild, who placed two images of solid silver, one of the most pure conception and another of San Eligio or Eloy.

The decoration of the entire chapel is neoclassical style belongs to the first half of the nineteenth century.

Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus

The Chapel of Saint Philip of Jesus (Capilla de San Felipe de Jesús) was completed during one of the earliest stages of the construction of the cathedral. It is dedicated to Philip of Jesus, a friar and the only martyr from New Spain, who was crucified in Japan. The chapel is topped with a Gothic-style dome and has a Baroque altarpiece from the 17th century. A statue of the saint is located in a large niche in the altarpiece. The altar to the left is dedicated to Saint Rose of Lima, considered a protector of Mexico City. To the right is an urn which holds the remains of Agustín de Iturbide, who briefly ruled Mexico from 1822 to 1823. Next to this chapel is a baptismal font, in which it is believed Philip of Jesus was baptised. The heart of Anastasio Bustamante is preserved here. In this chapel is a sculpture alluding to the first Mexican saint: San Felipe de Jesús. This work, as seen by many art critics, is the best elaborated, carved and polychrome sculptured sculpture from Latin America.

Organs

The cathedral has had perhaps a dozen organs over the course of its history. The earliest is mentioned in a report written to the king of Spain in 1530. Few details survive of the earliest organs. Builders names begin to appear at the end of the sixteenth century. The earliest disposition that survives is for the Diego de Sebaldos organ built in 1655. The first large organ for Mexico City Cathedral was built in Madrid from 1689 to 1690 by Jorge de Sesma and installed by Tiburcio Sanz from 1693 to 1695. It now has two, which were made in Mexico by José Nassarre of Spain, and completed by 1736, incorporating elements of the 17th century organ. They are the largest 18th century organs in the Americas; they are situated above the walls of the choir, on the epistle side (east) and the gospel side (west). Both organs, damaged by fire in 1967, were restored in 1978. Because both organs had fallen into disrepair again, the gospel organ was re-restored from 2008-2009 by Gerhard Grenzing; the restoration of the epistle organ, also by Grenzing, was completed in 2014, and both organs are now playable.

Choir

The choir is where the priest and/or a choral group sings the psalms. It is located in the central nave between the main door and the high altar, and built in a semicircular fashion, much like Spanish cathedrals. It was built by Juan de Rojas between 1696 and 1697. Its sides contain 59 reliefs of various saints done in mahogany, walnut, cedar and a native wood called tepehuaje. The railing that surrounds the choir was made in 1722 by Sangley Queaulo in Macao, China and placed in the cathedral in 1730.

The Crypt of the Archbishops is located below the floor of the cathedral beneath the Altar of the Kings. The entrance to the crypt from the cathedral is guarded by a large wooden door behind which descends a winding yellow staircase. Just past the inner entrance is a Mexica-style stone skull. It was incorporated as an offering into the base of a cenotaph to Juan de Zumárraga, the first archbishop of Mexico. Zumárraga was considered to be a benefactor of the Indians, protecting them against the abuses of their Spanish overlords. There is also a natural-sized sculpture of the archbishop atop the cenotaph.

On its walls are dozens of bronze plaques that indicate the locations of the remains of most of Mexico City’s former archbishops, including Cardinal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada. The floor is covered with small marble slabs covering niches containing the remains of other people.

The cathedral contains other crypts and niches where other religious figures are buried, including in the chapels.

The sinking ground and seismic activity of the area have had an effect on the cathedral’s construction and current appearance. Forty-two years were required simply to lay its foundation when it was first built, because even then the Spaniards recognized the danger of constructing such a huge monument in soft soil. However, for political reasons, much, but not all, of the cathedral was built over the remains of pre-Hispanic structures, leading to uneven foundation from the beginning.

Fire of 1967

On 17 January 1967 at 9 pm, a fire caused by an electrical short circuit caused extensive damage to the cathedral. On the Altar of Forgiveness, much of the structure and decoration were damaged including the loss of three paintings; The Holy Face by Alonso López de Herrera, The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Francisco de Zumaya and The Virgin of Forgiveness by Simon Pereyns. The choir section lost 75 of its 99 seats as well a painting by Juan Correa along with many stored books. The two cathedral organs were severely damaged with the partial melting of their pipes. Paintings by Rafael Jimeno y Planas, Juan Correa and Juan Rodriguez Juarez were damaged in other parts of the cathedral. After the fire, authorities recorded the damage but did nothing to try to restore what was damaged. Heated discussions ensued among historians, architects and investigations centering on the moving of the Altar of Forgiveness, as well as eliminating the choir area and some of the railings. In 1972, ecclesiastical authorities initiated demolition of the choir area without authorization from the Federal government, but were stopped. The government inventoried what could be saved and named Jaime Ortiz Lajous as director of the project to restore the cathedral to its original condition. Restoration work focused not only on repairing the damage (using archived records and photographs), but also included work on a deteriorating foundation (due to uneven sinking into the ground) and problems with the towers.

The Altars of Forgiveness and of the Kings were subject to extensive cleaning and restorative work. To replace the lost portions on the Altar of Forgiveness, several paintings were added; Escape from Egypt by Pereyns, The Divine Countenance and The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian. The organs were dismantled with the pipes and inner workings sent to the Netherlands for repair, while the cases were restored by Mexican craftsmen with work lasting until 1977. Reconstruction of the choir area began in 1979 using the same materials as existed before the fire. In addition, any statues in the towers that received more than 50% damage from city pollution were taken out, with replicas created to replace them. Those with less damage were repaired.

Some interesting discoveries were made as restoration work occurred during the 1970s and early 1980s. 51 paintings were found and rescued from behind the Altar of Forgiveness, including works by Juan and Nicolas Rodriguez Juarez, Miguel Cabrera and José de Ibarra. Inside one of the organs, a copy of the nomination of Hernán Cortés as Governor General of New Spain (1529) was found. Lastly, in the wall of the central arch of the cathedral was found the burial place of Miguel Barrigan, the first governor of Veracruz.

Late 20th-century work

The cathedral, along with the rest of the city, has been sinking into the lakebed from the day it was built. However, the fact that the city is a megalopolis with over 18 million people drawing water from underground sources has caused water tables to drop, and the sinking to accelerate during the latter half of the 20th century. Sections of the complex such as the cathedral and the tabernacle were still sinking at different rates, and the bell towers were tilting dangerously despite work done in the 1970s. For this reason, the cathedral was included in the 1998 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund.

Major restoration and foundation work began in the 1990s to stabilize the building. Engineers excavated under the cathedral between 1993 and 1998. They dug shafts under the cathedral and placed shafts of concrete into the soft ground to give the edifice a more solid base to rest on. These efforts have not stopped the sinking of the complex, but they have corrected the tilting towers and ensured that the cathedral will sink uniformly.

The cathedral has been a focus of Mexican cultural identity, and is a testament to its colonial history. Researcher Manuel Rivera Cambas reported that the cathedral was built on the site sacred precinct of the Aztecs and with the very stones of their temples so that the Spaniards could lay claim to the land and the people. Hernán Cortés supposedly laid the first stone of the original church personally.

It once was an important religious center, used exclusively by the prominent families of New Spain. In 1864, during the Second Mexican Empire, Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg and Empress Charlotte of Belgium (later known as Maximiliano and Carlota of Mexico) were crowned at the cathedral after the magnificent arrival to the head city of their reign.

Located on the Zocalo it has, over time, been the focus of social and cultural activities, most of which have occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries. The cathedral was closed for four years while President Plutarco Elías Calles attempted to enforce Mexico’s anti-religious laws. Pope Pius XI closed the church, ordering priests to cease their public religious duties in all Mexican churches. After the Mexican government and the papacy came to terms and major renovations were performed on the cathedral, it reopened in 1930.

The cathedral has been the scene of several protests both from the church and to the church, including a protest by women over the Church’s exhortation for women not to wear mini-skirts and other provocative clothing to avoid rape, and a candlelight vigil to protest against kidnappings in Mexico. The cathedral itself has been used to protest against social issues. Its bells rang to express the Archdiocese’s opposition to the Supreme Court upholding of Mexico City’s legalization of abortion.

Probably the most serious recent event occurred on 18 November 2007, when sympathizers of the Party of the Democratic Revolution attacked the cathedral. About 150 protesters stormed into Sunday Mass chanting slogans and knocking over pews. This caused church officials to close and lock the cathedral for a number of days. The cathedral reopened with new security measures, such as bag searches, in place.

The Island of the Dolls is full of dolls hanging from trees and buildings covered in cobwebs and insects. The place got its name in the 1950s when Julian Santana Barrera began hanging them as protection against spirits.

Santana was a neighbor of the Barrio de la Asunción (in the east of Mexico City), where he used to drink pulque after selling vegetables until superstition led him to preach the Bible and he was driven out of the area.

There are many myths about the Island of the Dolls. According to legend, a young woman (girl) drowned after becoming entangled among the lilies of the canal, and her body was found on the banks of the chinampas.

Julian Santana began to encounter inexplicable situations, so in horror, he put down the dolls that he found in the trash heap or in the canals, with the thought that they would frighten the soul of the young woman.

Julian Santana also found a doll floating nearby and, assuming it belonged to the deceased girl, hung it from a tree as a sign of respect. Later, he began to hear whispers, footsteps, and anguished wails in the darkness.

His hut was hidden deep inside the woods of Xochimilco, away from civilization.

Driven by fear, Julian Santana spent the next 50 years hanging more and more dolls, some missing body parts, around the Island of Dolls in an attempt to appease what he believed to be the spirit of the drowned girl.

In 1987, during a rescue mission by eco-tourists, the Dolls Island was discovered.

Since then, this island has become a place of curious eyes.

The island first became known after 1943 when Mexican director Emilio Fernandez filmed his famous “Maria Candelaria” (also known as “Xochimilco”), a romantic drama that stars Dolores del Río and Pedro Armendáriz.

The fact that this island was included in the film further increased its fame.

After Julian Santana’s death in 2001, his body was reportedly found in the exact spot where he found the girl’s body 50 years earlier, the site has become a popular tourist attraction, with visitors bringing more dolls.

Locals describe the Island of the Dolls as “enchanted” rather than “haunted”, although travelers claim the dolls whisper to them.

Embarcadero Cuemanco is an embarkation point where visitors can access trajineras.

Trajineras are traditional Mexican boats used for navigating the canals of Xochimilco. These vibrant-colored boats are a popular way to explore the scenic canals of Xochimilco and visit attractions like the Island of the Dolls.

It takes about 40 minutes by car from Mexico City.

It can take about 1 hour to reach Embarcadero Cuemanco by the metro. The nearest metro station to Embarcadero Cuemanco is the “Olivar del Conde”, which is part of Line 12 of the Mexico City Metro system.

Then take a taxi or “collectivo” to reach Embarcadero Cuemanco.

Where is the Island of the Dolls?

The Dolls Island is a 1.5-hour drive from Embarcadero Cuemanco. The only access is via trajinera. Most rowers are ready to transport visitors to the island, but there are also those who refuse due to superstition.

The excursion begins along maze-like canals. The trajinera journey lasts about 1 hour and includes a tour of the Ecological Area, the Ajolote Museum, the Apatlaco Canal, the Teshuilo Lagoon, and the Llorona Island.

From the start, the canals are surrounded by lush greenery and birdsong, but soon the boat is slowed by a swarm of water lilies and the canal falls into an eerie silence. It looks so surreal with hanging dolls around.

Hundreds, maybe thousands of dolls hanging from trees on a tiny island.

The island also has a small museum with articles from local newspapers about the island and the previous owner – Julian Santana. There is a store and 3 rooms, one of which appears to have been used as a bedroom.

This bedroom contains the first doll the island’s former owner, Julian Santana, collected, as well as Agustinita, his favorite doll. Some visitors place offerings around this doll in exchange for miracles and blessings.

The university was founded on 22 September 1910 by Justo Sierra, then Minister of Education in the Porfirio Díaz regime, who sought to create a very different institution from its 19th-century precursor, the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, which had been founded on 21 September 1551 by a royal decree signed by Crown Prince Phillip on behalf of Charles I of Spain and brought to a definitive closure in 1865 by Maximilian I of Mexico.

Instead of reviving what he saw as an anachronistic institution with strong ties to the Roman Catholic Church, he aimed to create a new university, secular in nature and national in scope, that could reorganize higher education within the country, serve as a model of positivism and encompass the ideas of the dominant Mexican liberalism.

The project initially unified the Fine Arts, Business, Political Science, Jurisprudence, Engineering, Medicine, Normal, and the National Preparatory schools; its first rector was Joaquin Eguía y Lis.

The new university’s challenges were mostly political, due to the ongoing Mexican Revolution and the fact that the federal government had direct control over the university’s policies and curriculum; some resisted its establishment on philosophical grounds.

This opposition led to disruptions in the function of the university when political instability forced resignations in the government, including that of President Díaz. Internally, the first student strike occurred in 1912 to protest examination methods introduced by the director of the School of Jurisprudence, Luis Cabrera.

By July of that year, a majority of the law students decided to abandon the university and join the newly created Free School of Law.

In 1914 initial efforts to gain autonomy for the university failed. In 1920, José Vasconcelos became rector. In 1921, he created the school’s coat-of-arms: the image of an eagle and a condor surrounding a map of Latin America, from Mexico’s northern border to Tierra del Fuego, and the motto, “The Spirit shall speak for my race”.

Efforts to gain autonomy for the university continued in the early 1920s. In the mid-1920s, the second wave of student strikes opposed a new grading system. The strikes included major classroom walkouts in the law school and confrontation with police at the medical school. The striking students were supported by many professors and subsequent negotiations eventually led to autonomy for the university. The institution was no longer a dependency of the Secretariat of Public Education; the university rector became the final authority, eliminating much of the confusing overlap in authority.

During the early 1930s, the rector of UNAM was Manuel Gómez Morín. The government attempted to implement socialist education at Mexican universities, which Gómez Morín, many professors, and Catholics opposed as an infringement on academic freedom. Gómez Morín with the support of the Jesuit-founded student group, the Unión Nacional de Estudiantes Católicos, successfully fought against socialist education.

UNAM supported the recognition of the academic certificates by Catholic preparatory schools, which validated their educational function. In an interesting turn of events, UNAM played an important role in the founding of the Jesuit institution in 1943, the Universidad Iberoamericana in 1943.

However, UNAM opposed initiatives at the Universidad Iberoamericana in later years, opposing the establishment of majors in industrial relations and communications.

In 1943 initial decisions were made to move the university from the various buildings it occupied in the city center to a new and consolidated university campus; the new Ciudad Universitaria (lit. University City) would be in San Ángel, to the south of the city.

The first stone laid was that of the faculty of Sciences, the first building of Ciudad Universitaria. President Miguel Alemán Valdés participated in the ceremony on 20 November 1952.

The University Olympic Stadium was inaugurated on the same day.

In 1957 the Doctorate Council was created to regulate and organize graduate studies.

Another major student strike, again over examination regulations, occurred in 1966. Students invaded the rectorate and forced the rector to resign. The Board of Regents did not accept this resignation, so the professors went on strike, paralyzing the university and forcing the Board’s acceptance. In the summer, violent outbreaks occurred on a number of the campuses of the university’s affiliated preparatory schools; police took over a number of high school campuses, with injuries.

Students at UNAM, along with other Mexico City universities, mobilized in what has come to be called Mexico 68, protests against the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, but also a whole array of political and social tensions. During August 1968, protests formed on the main campus against the police actions on the main campus and in the center of the city. The protests grew into a student movement that demanded the resignation of the police chief, among other things. More protests followed in September, gaining frequency and numbers. During a meeting of the student leaders, the army fired on the Chihuahua building in Tlatelolco, where the student organization supposedly was. In the Tlatelolco massacre, the police action produced with many dead, wounded and detained. Protests continued after that. Only ten days later, the 1968 Olympic Games opened at the University Stadium. The university was shut down for the duration.

The 1970s and 1980s saw the opening of satellite campuses in other parts of Mexico and nearby areas, to decentralize the system. There were some minor student strikes, mostly concerning grading and tuition.

The last major student strike at the university occurred in 1999–2000 when students shut down the campus for almost a year to protest a proposal to charge students the equivalent of US$150 per semester for those who could afford it. Referendums were held by both the university and the strikers, but neither side accepted the others’ results. Acting on a judge’s order, the police stormed the buildings held by strikers on 7 February 2000, putting an end to the strike.

In 2009 the university was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities and began the celebration of its centennial anniversary with several activities that will last until 2011.

The UNAM has actively included minorities into different educational fields, as in technology. In 2016, the university adopted United Nations platforms throughout all of its campuses to support and empower women.

“Ciudad Universitaria” (University City) is UNAM’s main campus, located within the Coyoacán borough in the southern part of Mexico City.

It was designed by architects Mario Pani, Enrique del Moral, Domingo García Ramos, Armando Franco Rovira, Ernesto Gómez Gallardo and others, and it encloses the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, about 40 schools and institutes, the Cultural Center, an ecological reserve, the Central Library, and a few museums.

It was built during the 1950s on an ancient solidified lava bed to replace the scattered buildings in downtown Mexico City, where classes were given. It was completed in 1954, and is almost a separate region within Mexico City, with its own regulations, councils, and police (to some extent), in a more fundamental way than most universities around the world.

In June 2007, its main campus, Ciudad Universitaria, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Apart from University City (Ciudad Universitaria), UNAM has several campuses in the Metropolitan Area of Mexico City (Acatlán, Aragón, Cuautitlán, Iztacala, and Zaragoza), as well as many others in several locations across Mexico (in Santiago de Querétaro, Morelia, Mérida, Sisal, Ensenada, Cuernavaca, Temixco and Leon), mainly aimed at research and graduate studies. Its Center of Teaching for Foreigners has a campus in Taxco, in the southern Mexican state of Guerrero, focusing in Spanish language and Mexican culture for foreigners, as well as locations in the upscale neighborhood of [Polanco] in central Mexico City.

The University has extension schools in the United States, and Canada, focusing on the Spanish language, English language, Mexican culture, and, in the case of UNAM Canada, French language: UNAM San Antonio, Texas; UNAM Los Angeles, California; UNAM Chicago, Illinois; Gatineau, Quebec; and Seattle, Washington.

It operates Centers for Mexican Studies and/or Centers of Teaching for Foreigners in Beijing, China (jointly with the Beijing University of Foreign Studies); Madrid, Spain (jointly with the Cervantes Institute); San Jose, Costa Rica (jointly with the University of Costa Rica); and due to open soon in: Paris, France (jointly with Paris-Sorbonne University) and in Northridge, California, United States (jointly with the California State University Northridge).

Palacio de Minería

Under the care of the School of Engineering, UNAM, the Colonial Palace of Mining is located in the historical center of Mexico City.

Formerly the School of Engineering, it has three floors, and hosts the International Book Expo (“Feria Internacional del Libro” or “FIL”) and the International Day of Computing Security Congress (“DISC”). It also has a permanent exhibition of historical books, mostly topographical and naturalist works of 19th-century Mexican scientists, in the former library of the School of Engineers.

It also contains several exhibitions related to mining, the prime engineering occupation during the Spanish colonization. It is considered to be one of the most significant examples of Mexican architecture of its period, conceived by Manuel Tolsa during de Spanish colonial rule in a neoclassical style (18th century).

Casa del Lago

The House of the Lake, in Chapultepec Park, is a place devoted to cultural activities, including dancing, theater, and ballet. It also serves as meeting place for university-related organizations and committees.

Museum of San Ildefonso

This museum and cultural center is considered to be the birthplace of the Mexican muralism movement. San Ildefonso began as a prestigious Jesuit boarding school, and after the Reform War, it gained educational prestige again as National Preparatory School, which was closely linked to the founding of UNAM.

This school, and the building, closed completely in 1978, then reopened as a museum and cultural center in 1994, administered jointly by UNAM, the National Council for Culture and Arts and the government of the Federal District of Mexico City.

The museum has permanent and temporary art and archaeological exhibitions, in addition to the many murals painted on its walls by José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera and others. The complex is located between San Ildefonso Street and Justo Sierra Street in the historic center of Mexico City.

Chopo University Museum

The Chopo University Museum possesses an artistic architecture, large crystal panels and two iron towers designed by Gustave Eiffel. It opened with part of the collection of the now-defunct Public Museum of Natural History, Archeology and History, which eventually became the National Museum of Cultures.

It served the National Museum of Natural History for almost 50 years, and is now devoted to the temporary exhibitions of visual arts.

National Astronomical Observatory

The National Astronomical Observatory is located in the Sierra San Pedro Mártir mountain range in Baja California, about 130 km south of United States-Mexican border. It has been in operation since 1970, and it currently has three large reflecting telescopes.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The Salón Tenampa was founded by Juan Indalecio Hernández Ibarra, originally from Cocula, Jalisco, the birthplace of mariachi.

Hernández arrived in Mexico City from Jalisco in 1923 and started a cantina/store on Plaza Garibaldi, naming it El Tenampa.

The origin of this name is in dispute. Some say it was the brand name of a Cuban cigar that has since disappeared. Others say it is the name of a ranch in Veracruz and still others say it comes from an indigenous word “tenampal” meaning meeting place.

Hernández opened the establishment to give his fellow “Jalisquenses” a taste of home, with foods such as birria and pozole, as well as tequila and mariachi music.

Soon after opening his establishment, Hernández located a mariachi musician he knew in Cocula, Concho Andrade, and convinced him to play at El Tenampa. This began the long tradition of major mariachi bands playing here.

However, Andrade’s band did not play here long because of the ongoing Cristero War that was causing problems back in Cocula, causing most of the band to return to Jalisco to their families.

In 1927, Hernández hired Cirilo Marmolejo to play along with other mariachi groups.

While one group played inside the club, another would play for crowds outside in the Plaza. The popularity of mariachi music grew and other big names in the genre, such as José Reyes, would also come and play at El Tenampa.

Over the decades, the establishment hosted kings, princesses, presidents, and prime ministers, as well as innumerable politicians, artists, and intellectuals from Mexico and abroad.

Still located on the north side of Garibaldi Plaza, El Tenampa parties every night until 03:00 or 04:00 on weekends and holidays.

In 1910, Garibaldi Plaza had a garden in the middle of it. Later, the plaza was completely paved over with a kiosk placed in the center and an arcade placed near the front, by Eje Central.

On either side of the plaza were statues of great Charro singers. Along with the Salón Tenampa, bars, restaurants, and nightclubs have surrounded the Plaza.

Other popular nightspots have included the Guadalajara de Noche, the Nuevo México Típico, and the Tropicana. Places to eat include the San Camilito Gastronomic Market, which is filled with small stands serving Mexican food, many specializing in birria.

There is a pulquería here as well, called the Pulquería Hermosa Hortensia. While it is not a traditional pulquería, it is considered to be a safe place for tourists to try the native alcoholic drink of pulque.

Until 2009, this was the look the plaza had. The kiosk and arcade had witnessed thousands of declarations of love, where couples had mariachi bands serenade them. Others had come to celebrate special occasions, for nights out on the town, or to forget about a lost love.

Every year on 21 November, the Day of the Music is celebrated here.

By 2009, the Plaza and the neighborhoods of Guerrero and Tlatelolco surrounding it had been in decline for decades. Infrastructure had not been maintained or updated, but the most serious deterioration for the area has been in the way of security.

The area is well known for thieves, especially on the side streets, indigence, and public drunkenness.

This deterioration has caused many legitimate businesses to leave these neighborhoods and the number of tourists visiting the Plaza itself has greatly declined.

In spite of the area’s serious decline, Plaza Garibaldi remains one of the best-recognized places by foreign visitors in Mexico City.

In 2007, a plan to rescue and revitalize Plaza Garibaldi and the surrounding neighborhoods called the Programa Integral de Remodelación de la Plaza Garibaldi, was implemented. The plan is part of the ongoing effort to revitalize the historic downtown, and part of more ambitious plans to revitalize tourism in Zona Rosa and Xochimilco as well.

The goal of the Garibaldi project is to recuperate one of the most “emblematic” or “iconic” places and to restore it as one of the premier nightspots in Mexico City.

The first priority of the project has been to improve the security of the Plaza and the surrounding neighborhoods.

A “security zone” between La Lagunilla (just east of Plaza Garibaldi), extending west and south to the Palacio de Bellas Artes, has been created so that the area can be visited 24 hours a day.

This area is called the Bellas Artes-Garibaldi Tourism Corridor. Street lighting is being improved along with the rehabilitation of the gardens and sidewalks of the neighboring streets.

More police are being stationed here and two permanent police modules, one on Eje Central and the other in the center of Plaza Garibaldi itself, are planned.

Security cameras are being installed and traffic flow along Eje Central improved. To rid the area of indigents and drunks, social workers are being employed to lead people to shelters and/or to job training services as appropriate.

When necessary, judicial intervention will occur, according to the city. It is hoped that these combined efforts will move “anti-social” elements to other parts of the city, allowing businesses and private investment to return.

All property owners in the area are being required to invest, co-invest, sell their lands, or risk expropriation. The old kiosk and arcade have been leveled, as well as some of the older buildings on the east side of the plaza, to create more open space.

An agave garden is the center of the new Plaza Garibaldi. Benches, better walkways, lighting, and a tourism information booth are added.

Two showpieces of the project are the Museum of Tequila and Mezcal and a School of Mariachi dedicated to the formal training of mariachi musicians.

Located just behind the Agave Garden on the Plaza, the museum is a three-story building with clear glass walls, stone floors, and an area of 220 m2.

The architect of the project is Adriana Sepúlveda Vildósola, who is sponsored by the Autoridad de Espacio Público of Mexico City. Offices and other spaces occupy most of the ground floor.

The first floor is an open exhibition area and contains most of the museum’s exhibition space. The purpose of the museum is to show the drinks’ origins, production, and wide variety, and their place in the history of Mexico and Mexican cuisine.

The museum also contains a tasting room.

The project has a budget of 30 million pesos.

The top floor of the museum building is home to a bar with a small performing area, where seasoned solo mariachi singers perform well-known Mexican folk songs. The mostly Mexican audiences often sing along with the performers.

Although open to the public, it has a genial and inclusive atmosphere.

The School of Mariachi, like its predecessor, the School of Mexican Music, which was housed in an old silk factory nearby, trains mariachi musicians with an eye toward keeping the old traditional ways.

Many mariachi purists complain that the music has been over-adapted to modern tastes and that many “pirate musicians,” who do not devote themselves to the music full-time, are ruining one of Mexico’s treasured icons.

Many also worry that the music’s popularity in other places in the world, especially in the United States, is bringing unwanted changes to the genre. The School of Mariachi will get a new home in the new Plaza, and will also certify professional mariachi musicians from Mexico and around the world.

The School of Mariachi has a budget of 32.1 million pesos.

The statues of Mexican music greats such as Pedro Infante, Jorge Negrete, Javier Solís, and others are being moved to Republica de Honduras Street. This street will be closed to vehicular traffic and be converted into the Paseo de los Idolos de la Música Mexicana (Boulevard of the Idols of Mexican Music).

The San Camilitio Gastronomic Market will remain, but it will be extensively rehabilitated at a cost of 4.5 million pesos. To further gastronomic development here, the city has proposed a Conservatory of Mexican Cuisine.

They are also working to get gourmet restaurants in other parts of the city to open here as well, promising to work to promote new restaurants that do open here.

A lienzo charro for charreada has also been planned for this section of the city, as it is tied to mariachi music.

Plaza Garibaldi is located in historic downtown Mexico City, on Eje Central (Lázaro Cárdenas) between street Calle República de Honduras and street Calle República de Peru, a few blocks north of the Palacio de Bellas Artes.

Metro: Garibaldi-Langunilla

The delegation comprises its historic and cultural center. The city and borough are centered on the Zócalo or main square which contains the Aztec ruins of the Templo Mayor, the Metropolitan Cathedral, and the National Palace of Mexico.

The borough covers 3,244 hectares or 32.44 km2, divided into 34 colonias, with, 1,500 buildings classified as national monuments and 2 archeological zones (Tlatelolco and Templo Mayor).

Because it is the oldest part of Mexico City, with buildings that are centuries old, deterioration is an ongoing concern.

Currently, at least 789 inhabited buildings in twelve colonies have been listed as in danger of condemnation, due to structural damage caused by sinking into muddy soil of the former lakebed.

These are mostly located in the historic center and the colonies immediately surrounding it. Some of these have been classified as having historic or artistic value by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes or Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia.

This has been a problem for the area for centuries and has involved famous structures such as the Metropolitan Cathedral, which had major foundation work done to stop the damage caused by uneven sinking.

Most of the 5 million who come into this borough each day are there to work, visit the area’s markets, shops, and cultural attractions, or are tourists. The borough is the most visited area of the city by tourists, who mostly come to see the historic center and Zona Rosa.

People from other parts of the city come to visit the museums and large public markets such as La Lagunilla, Mixcalco, Hidalgo, Medellín, and San Juan. The influx brings in 800,000 vehicles to circulate its streets each day, with traffic jams, especially in and near the historic center nearly a daily occurrence.

The early history of the delegation coincides with the history of Aztec Tenochtitlan and colonial Mexico City. Tenochtitlan was founded on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco. It was divided into four capuillis or neighborhoods centering on the Templo Mayor. This temple’s ruins are located very close to the modern main square or Zocalo today.

When the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521, they destroyed most of the old Aztec public buildings but kept the basic layout of the city, which roughly extends over what is now known as the historic center or Colonia Centro.

The Cathedral was built over a portion of the sacred precinct (teocalli) of the destroyed Templo Mayor, the National Palace was built over Moctezuma’s New Palace, and the Zocalo was built over what was an open space near the sacred temple space.

Over the early colonial period, European-style construction would replace Aztec ones over the entire island city, with the most important public buildings concentrated on the blocks adjoining the Zocalo.

As the center of New Spain, the city held the greatest prestige, prompting those who had made their fortunes through conquest, mining, commerce, and other means to have homes in the city, as close to the Zocalo as possible. The city soon became filled with mansions, large churches and monasteries, and monumental public buildings which would eventually earn it the nickname “City of Palaces”.

At the beginning of the 19th century, this city remained mostly within what is now called the historic center although various drainage projects had been enlarging the island.

The city proper contained 397 streets and alleys, 12 bridges, 78 plazas, 14 parish churches, 41 monasteries, 10 colleges, 7 hospitals, a poorhouse, a cigar factory, 19 restaurants, 2 inns, 28 corrals for horses, and 2 official neighborhoods.

After Mexico gained its Independence, the city was designated as the capital of the new country in 1824. The city and a quantity of land surrounding it total of 11.5 sq km was designated as the “Federal District,” separate from the other states.

By the late, 19th century, the city began to break its traditional confines with the construction of new neighborhoods, called colonies, in the still-drying lakebed. This was especially true in the areas west of the historic area, with the creation of “modern” colonies for the wealthy along the Paseo de la Reforma, built earlier by Maximilian I.

These colonies include Colonia Juárez, Colonia Roma, Colonia Cuauhtémoc, and Colonia San Rafael. Colonias for poorer and working-class people were built mostly north and south of the city such as Colonia Morelos, and Colonia Doctores.

In 1928, President Álvaro Obregón divided the rapidly growing Federal District area into thirteen boroughs (delegaciones), with what was then the city proper designated as the Cuauhtémoc borough.

While the borough still remained the center of the city’s commerce, politics, academia, and culture during the first half of the 20th century, this historic center began going into decline as the wealthy moved out into the new western colonies as early as the end of the 19th century.

By the 1950s, the country’s main university UNAM moved almost all of its facilities out of the borough and into the newly built Ciudad Universitaria in the south of the city.

In the 1940s, the city government froze rents in the borough and by the late 1990s, when this was finally repealed, many tenants were paying the same prices they were in the 1950s. With no financial incentive to keep up their properties, landlords let their buildings disintegrate. Most of this occurred in the historic center, but this phenomenon also presented itself in other areas such as Colonia San Rafael and the Centro Urbano Benito Juárez as well.

Since the 1950s, the city has received the highest number of migrants from other parts of Mexico. Most of these come from very rural areas of the country and a significant percentage speak an indigenous language with Spanish as a second language or do not speak Spanish at all. As of 2005, seven percent of the borough’s population is made up of these migrants. These migrants have put strains on services such as education.

The borough was the hardest hit by the 1985 earthquake with 258 buildings completely crumbling, 143 partially collapsed and 181 seriously damaged. The result was the loss of 100,000 residents, just in the historic center.

Another area with major damage was Colonia Roma with a number of buildings collapsing completely. Even areas that did not suffer significant damage, such as Colonia San Rafael, were affected when homeless from other parts of the borough moved in, or Colonia Condesa, when wealthier residents moved out. Because of the rent situation, most of the damaged structures were never fixed or rebuilt, leading to slums or garbage-strewn vacant lots.

As late as the 2000s, buildings damaged from the event have collapsed. In 2003, the city government expropriated sixty-four properties thought to be in danger of sudden collapse due to damage suffered nearly 20 years earlier after a collapse of an apartment building in Colonia Vista Alegre, but in 2010 an apartment building partially collapsed in Colonia San Rafael, due to the same cause. Since the quake, the borough has invested in its own early warning system, which was created for it by UNAM.

Between the flight of wealthier residents from the historic center and the colonies that immediately surround it and the damage from the 1985 earthquake, parts of the borough became deserted at night. Former mansions had been converted into tenements for the poor, and the sidewalks and streets were taken over by pickpockets and street vendors, especially in the historic center.

This made the area unpalatable for tourists. As the historic center is the city’s main tourist attraction, the city lost its standing as a destination for international visitors, instead becoming an airport connection for other areas of the country.

Until recently, many of the restaurants in the area, even the best, would close early to allow employees time to get home because the area was not particularly safe at night.

Starting in the late 1990s, the city and federal governments, along with some private associations have worked to revitalize the borough, especially the historic center.

Starting in the early 2000s, the government infused 55 million USD into the Historic Center Trust and entered into a partnership with a business group led by Carlos Slim, to buy dozens of centuries-old buildings and other real estate to rehabilitate.

Work has concentrated on renovating historic buildings, repaving streets, and improving water, lighting, and other infrastructure. A number of the oldest streets near the Zocalo have been made into pedestrian only and most street vendors have been forced to move out of the historic center.

This paved the way for the opening of upscale eateries, bars, and fashionable stores. Also, young people are moving into downtown lofts. To attract more tourists, there are new red double-decker buses.

There have been other efforts in other parts of the borough such as in Colonia Juarez and Colonia Obrera but with mixed results.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

What is now the historic downtown of Mexico City roughly correlates with the ancient Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, which was founded around 1325. During the prehispanic era, the city developed in a planned fashion, with streets and canals aligned with the cardinal directions, leading to orderly square blocks. The island that the city was founded on was divided into four calpullis or neighborhoods that were divided by the main north-south roads leading to Tepeyac and Iztapalapa respectively and the west-east road that lead to Tacuba and to a dike into the lake, respectively. The calpullis were named Cuepopan, Atzacualco, Moyotla and Zoquipan, which had subdivisions and a “tecpan” or district council each. The intersection of these roads was the center of the city and of the Aztec world. Here were the Templo Mayor, the palaces of the tlatoani or emperors, palaces of nobles such as the “House of the Demons” and the “House of the Flowers”. Also located here were the two most renowned Aztec schools: the Telpuchcalli for secular studies and the Calmecac for priestly training. When the Spaniards arrived, the city had aqueducts built by Moctezuma Ilhuicamina and Ahuizotl as well as a large dike constructed to the east of the city.

After the Spanish conquest, this design remained largely intact, mostly due to the efforts of Alonso Garcia Bravo, who supervised much of the rebuilding of the city. This reconstruction conserved many of the main thoroughfares such as Tenayuca, renamed Vallejo; Tlacopan, renamed México Tacuba, and Tepeyac, now called the Calzada de los Misterios. They also kept major divisions of the city adding Christian prefixes to the names such as San Juan Moyotla, Santa María Tlaquechiuacan, San Sebastián Atzacualco and San Pedro Teopan. In fact, most of the centro historicos is built with the rubble of the destroyed Aztec city.

A number of people during this time, all Spaniards, accumulated vast wealth mostly through mining and commerce in the 17th and 18th centuries. This wealth is reflected in the various mansions scattered in the centro such as the Palace of Iturbide and Casa de Azulejos (House of Tiles). This house was built in the 16th century in Arab style but its namesake tiles were added in 1747 when the Count of the Valley of Orizaba ordered the Talavera tiles from Puebla.

In the early part of the 20th century, as a result of the Latin American posture of then-Minister of Public Education José Vasconcelos, many of the streets to the north and west of the Zocalo were renamed after Latin American countries.

Deterioration of the area

From Aztec times, the Centro Historico used to be where the wealthy and elite lived. However, in the early 20th century, these classes began to move to areas west and southwest of the Centro, to neighbourhoods such as Colonia Juárez, Colonia Cuauhtémoc, Colonia Roma and Colonia Condesa. The Centro remained the commercial, political and intellectual center through the mid 20th century although it was around this time that UNAM moved most of its facilities to the new Ciudad Universitaria. The reason for the decline of the city center was partly man-made and partly natural. In the 1940s, the city government froze rents so that until 1998 when the government repealed the law, tenants were still paying 1950’s-level rents. With no financial incentive to keep up their properties, landlords let their buildings disintegrate. The 1985 earthquake took its toll on a number of these structures, which were never fixed or rebuilt, leading to slums and garbage-strewn vacant lots. The result was the loss of about 100,000 residents of the “Colonia Centro”, leaving the area almost deserted at night.

By the 1980s, so many had fled the Centro that many of its former mansions were either abandoned or turned into tenements for the poor, and its sidewalks and streets taken over by pickpockets and milling vendors. For many people, especially international visitors, Mexico City’s reputation for pollution, traffic and crime has made the city someplace to “get into and out of as fast as you can”, seeing it as little more than an airport through which to make their connecting flights to resort areas like Cozumel. Until recently, many of the restaurants in the area, even the best, would close early to allow employees time to get home because the area was not particularly safe at night.

Deterioration of religious buildings

Many of historic churches in the oldest parts of the city are in serious disrepair and are in danger of being lost. Efforts to save these churches are hampered by disagreements between the Church and the federal government. Because these churches are both active religious institutions and historical landmarks, their legal situation is complicated. By law, religious institutions cannot appeal to the government for financial help, but agencies like the National Council for Culture and Arts (CONACULTA) do have say in how these places are maintained because of their historic value.

Some of the disagreement is over the extent of the deterioration. Conaculta does not believe that any of the 68 religious buildings in the oldest part of city are in imminent danger of collapse. However the Archdiocese of Mexico believes that the structural problems noted constitute a grave danger to both people and to the “incalculable artistic and historic value of the buildings.” One of the churches in imminent danger is called San Lorenzo Diácono y Mártir, with Our Lady of Loreto, La Santísima Trinidad and La Santa Cruz also requiring prompt attention to avoid collapse. The San Lorenzo and Loreto churches both have had incidences where large pieces of the building, a stone and a window respectively, have fallen, causing damage but no injuries. Despite efforts by the archdiocese to demonstrate the extent of the damage of many of the churches, Conaculta still maintains that none of the buildings are in danger of coming down. Another problem is that the depopulation of the historic center, which leaves these churches fairly empty and the diocese unable to fund restoration work.

Revitalization

Starting in the early 2000s, the government has infused 500 million Mexican pesos (55 million USD) into the Historic Center Trust and entered into a partnership with the Fundación Centro Histórico, an organization established by Carlos Slim, to buy dozens of centuries-old buildings for rehabilitation. The significance of this effort was recognized when, in 2006, the Historic Center was included in the 2006 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. Work began with the renovation of 34 blocks just north of the Zocalo, digging up the antiquated drainage system and improving water supply. An architect was put in charge of each of the thirteen main streets to restore the facades of more than 500 buildings. The latest infrastructure projects of this type have focused on the southwest portions of the area, on República de El Salvador, Talavera, Correo Mayor, Mesones and Pino Suárez streets, mostly focusing on repaving and improving the outdated drainage systems. In the process, artifacts dating from as early as the pre-Hispanic period have been unearthed.

All over the historic center, streets have been pedestrianized, buildings have been remodeled and restored, and new museums opened. In the 1990s, after many years of controversy, protests and even riots, most street vendors were evicted to other parts of the city. The impetus to bring things back to the city center included the construction of the new mayoral residence just off the Zocalo. The government has buried electric and telephone cables in the area, and replaced old asphalt with paving stones. It has also installed nearly 100 security cameras to help with crime issues. This paved the way for the opening of upscale eateries, bars and fashionable stores. Also, young people are moving into downtown lofts. To attract more tourists, there are new red double-decker buses.

As of 2004, investment in the city center has climbed to over 5 billion pesos or 438 million U.S. dollars. According to the Historic Center of Mexico City Trust, this has led to the creation of 15,000 jobs and property owners in the area are showing interest in improving on their investments here. It has also attracted outside investment into the area.

Historically, the Zócalo, or main plaza, has been a venue for fine and popular cultural events. Some example of events held here recently are Spencer Tunick’s photo shoot, the Ashes and Snow Nomadic museum and a skateboarding/BMX event that drew 50,000 young people on 24 August 2008. The Festival de México is an annual event with programs dedicated to art (popular and high) and academia. In 2008, was the 24th Festival with 254 performances and shows from over 20 countries.in 65 plazas and other locations in this section of the city.

It is central to national level protests such as those staged by Lopez Obrador after the 2006 Presidential Elections and the nationwide protest against crime held on August 30, 2008.

Just off the Zócalo are the Palacio Nacional, the Cathedral Metropolitana, the Templo Mayor with its adjoining museum, and Nacional Monte de Piedad building. The Palacio Nacional borders the entire east side of the Zocalo and contains the offices of the President of Mexico, the Federal Treasury, the National Archives as well as murals depicting pre-Hispanic life and a large mural filling the central stairway depicting the entire history of the Mexican nation from the Conquest on. This palace was built on the ruins of Moctezuma II’s palace beginning in 1521, using the same tezontle stone used to build the Aztec palace. It was originally in the Hernán Cortés family until the king of Spain bought it to house the viceroys of New Spain and remained so (despite being destroyed and rebuilt again in 1692) until Mexican independence. Facing the Zócalo above a central balcony is the Campana (Bell) of Dolores, which is rung by the president each 15th of Sept to celebrate Independence.

The Metropolitan Cathedral, dedicated to the Assumption of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary, occupies the north end of the Zócalo. The site originally was part of the Aztec Sacred Precinct (called the Teocalli) and contained the main tzompantli, or rack for the skulls of sacrifice victims. The first church was erected between 1524 or 1526 and 1532 and was elevated to the rank of cathedral on 2 September 1530 by Pope Clement VII. The foundations for a new cathedral were begun in 1562 and the foundation stone was laid in 1573 in the time of Archbishop Pedro Moya de Contreras and of the 4th Viceroy. Although the works had not been concluded, the cathedral received its first dedication on 2 February 1656. The completion in 1813 of the neo-classical additions designed by Manuel Tolsa was celebrated on 15 August 2013 by Cardinal Carrera who opened and entered through the Holy Door in the center of the façade prior to celebrating Pontifical High Mass in the cathedral.

Between 1989 and 2000 extensive engineering works were conducted to arrest and rectify damage and distortions caused to the structure by the uneven rate and extent of the sinking of the building provoked by the continuous settlement of the ground on which it stands. This began with the drainage of the lake of the Valley of Mexico initiated in 1607 and has continued with the reduction of the water-table caused by the pumping of water for use by Mexico City’s rapidly expanding population. The last of the temporary props which had disfigured the interior of the building during the engineering works were removed on 28 November 2000.

The Templo Mayor archeological site and museum, is the center of the ancient teocalli, located now just northeast of the Zócalo. It was demolished by Hernán Cortés in the 1520s and its location forgotten. The exact site was determined in the beginning of the 20th century, but the decision to excavate was not made until 1978, when electrical workers chanced upon an eight-ton stone disk depicting the Aztec goddess Coyolxauhqui. Excavation unearthed a pyramid built in multiple layers. This is the spot where, according to legend, the Aztecs saw their sign to settle from their wanderings, an eagle perched on a nopal cactus with a snake in its beak, which is still the symbol of Mexico today.

The Nacional Monte de Piedad building is the national pawn shop, founded in 1775 and one of the largest second-hand shops in the world. On this site were houses that belonged to the last Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II, which Hernán Cortés took for his own after the Conquest. These houses originally stretched from modern-day Isabel la Catolica, Madero, Tacuba and Monte de Piedad streets, prompting one chronicler, Cervantes de Salazar to comment that the residence was not a palace but rather another city.

Santo Domingo refers to the Church of Santo Domingo and the adjoining plaza. Both are located three blocks north of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral following Republica de Brasil Street with Belisario Dominguez Street separating the two. Officially known as the Señor de la Expiación Chapel, the church is located on the north side of Belisario Dominguez and faces the plaza. It is all that is left from the first convent to be established in New Spain. To the south of the church is Plaza San Domingo. It is flanked to the west by the Portal de Evangelistas, which is a Tuscan colonnade with round arches. Scribes with typewriters and antique printing machines work in this Portal. Scribes offer their services to illiterate clients, often offering services similar to that of lawyers, counselors, and financial consultants. A statue of Josefa Ortiz de Dominguez, a heroine of the Mexican War of Independence stands in a fountain in the middle of the plaza.

The San Ildefonso College currently is a museum and cultural center considered to be the birthplace of the Mexican muralism movement. San Ildefonso began as a prestigious Jesuit boarding school, and after the Reform War, it gained educational prestige again as National Preparatory School. This school and the building closed completely in 1978, then reopened as a museum and cultural center in 1994. The museum has permanent and temporary art and archeological exhibitions in addition to the many murals painted on its walls by José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera and others. The complex is located between San Ildefonso Street and Justo Sierra Street in the historic center of Mexico City.

• Secretaría de Educación Pública at Calle Argentina
• Centro Cultural de España (Cultural Center of Spain)
• Museum Archive of Photography
• Lirico Theatre
• Antigua Escuela de Economía (Old School of Economics)
• Colegio Nacional, located on The Colegio Nacional Building
• Old Customs building
• Palace of the Inquisition (Museum of Mexican Medicine)

The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation is located just off the main plaza of Mexico City on the corners of Pino Suárez and Carranza Streets. It was built between 1935 and 1941 by Antonio Muñoz Garcia. Prior to the Conquest, this site was reserved for the ritual known as “Dance of the Flyers” which is still practice today in Papantla. Its ownership was in dispute during much of the colonial period, eventually becoming the site of a very large market known as El Volador. The interior of the building contains four panels painted in 1941 by José Clemente Orozco, two of which are named “The Social Labor Movement” and “National Wealth.” There is also one mural done by American artist George Biddle entitled “War and Peace” at the entrance to the library.

• Temple of Saint Augustine
• The original El Palacio de Hierro store
• The original Liverpool department store
• Saint Augustine House
• The Chapel of the Most Holy Conception of Tlaxcoaque
• Church of San Bernardo

The Palace of Iturbide – this large palatial home, located in the historic center of Mexico City on Madero Street #17 was built by the Count of San Mateo Valparaíso in the 18th century as a wedding gift for his daughter. It gained the name “Palace of Iturbide” because Agustín de Iturbide lived and accepted the crown as Mexico’s first emperor there after independence from Spain. Today, the restored building houses the Fomento Cultural Banamex and has been renamed the Palacio de Cultura Banamex.

The Torre Latinoamericana This is one of the best-known skyscrapers in Latin America. It was begun in 1948 and completed in 1956 and is 182 meters tall, antennae included. It is located on the corner of Eje Central and Juarez Streets. It was the tallest tower in Mexico prior to the construction of Torre Pemex. The building has survived two major earthquakes since it was built, one in 1957 and the other in 1985.

The Museo Nacional de Arte (MUNAL) is the Mexican National Art Museum, located in the historical center of Mexico City. The museum is housed in a neoclassical building at No. 8 Tacuba, Col. Centro, Mexico City. It houses a collection representing the history of Mexican art from the late pre-Hispanic era to the early 20th century. It is recognizable by Manuel Tolsá’s large equestrian statue of Charles IV of Spain who was the monarch just before Mexico gained its Independence. It was originally in the Zocalo but it was moved to several locations, not out of deference to the king but rather to conserve a piece of art, according to the plaque at the base. It arrived to its final location in 1979.

The Palacio de Correos de Mexico (Postal Palace of Mexico City) also known as the “Correo Mayor” (Main Post Office) is located in the historic center of Mexico City, on the Eje Central (Lazaro Cardenas) near the Palacio de Bellas Artes. It is an early 20th-century building built in the style of an Italian Renaissance palace. It was designed by Italian Adamo Boari, who also designed part of the Palacio de Bellas Artes across the street.

• Casa de Azulejos
• Colegio de Minería (College of Mining)
• Mexican Army Museum originally Bethlemites Hospital
• Garden of the Triple Alliance
• Cámara de Senadores
• Museo de Estanquillo (cartoons and magazines)
• Temple of San Felipe Neri “La Profesa”
• Interactive Museum of Economics
• Santa Clara church – Library of Congress
• Senate of Mexico Chambers
• Chamber of Deputies
• Teatro de la Ciudad
• Academia Mexicana

The Museo de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público is an art museum located at Moneda Street #4. It is housed in what was the Palacio del Arzobispado (Palace of the Archbishopric), built in 1530 under Friar Juan de Zumárraga on the base of the destroyed pyramid dedicated to the Aztec god Tezcatlipoca. It remained the archbishphoric until 1867 when the Finance Ministry Accountancy Department was established there. The modern museum houses an exhibit dedicated to this god as well as a large art collection.

La Santísima Church is located the cornoer of La Santísima and Emiliano Zapata streets. Its full name is Temple and Hospital of the Most Holy Trinity (Templo y Antiguo Hospital de la Santisíma Trinidad). The church was built between 1755 and 1783 as a temple for the adjoining hospital/hospice for priests. The church still retains its original function but the adjoining hospital and office sites have since moved into private hands with only parts of the original structures still intact and preserved. The church is also noted for the fact that it has sunk almost three meters since it was built.

The José Luis Cuevas Museum is located just off the main plaza, or Zocalo of Mexico City in a building that was the convent for the neighboring Church of Santa Ines (Agnes of Rome). This convent was founded in 1600 by Don Diego Caballero and his wife Doña Inés de Velasco. The convent existed until 1861, when, due to the Nationalization of Church Property Act, all convents and monasteries in the country were disbanded. The convent’s church and residence hall where separated and the Church of Santa Inés still maintains its original function. The residence hall became private property, functioning mostly as tenements until artist José Luis Cuevas bought the property with the intention to restoring it and establishing the current museum dedicated to his art and art of contemporary Latin America.

The House of the First Print Shop in the Americas at the corner of Moneda and Licenciado Primo Verdad streets was the home of the first printing press/print shop in the New World. The house was originally constructed by Gerónimo de Aguilar in 1524 and is located on the outer edge of what was the sacred precinct of the Templo Mayor prior to the Conquest.

• Cathedral Nuestra Señora de Balvanera and Sanctuary of San Charbel
• Palacio de la Autonomia de UNAM, (Palace of UNAM’s Autonomy)
• Departamento de Estadistica Nacional (Dept. of National Statistics) building

Alameda Central is a public park in downtown Mexico City, adjacent to the Palacio de Bellas Artes, between Juarez Avenue and Hidalgo Avenue. It is a green garden with paved paths and decorative fountains and statues, and is frequently the center of civic events.

The area used to be an Aztec marketplace and after the Conquest, the Catholic Church used the area for the burning of heretics and witches.

The park was created in 1592, when Viceroy Luis de Velasco decided to create green space here as a public park. By the late 19th century, the park included a bandstand and gas (now electric) lamps.

The name comes from the Spanish word álamo, which means poplar tree, which were planted here.

On the south side of the park, facing toward the street is the Hemiciclo a Juárez, which is a large white semi-circular monument to Benito Juárez, who is one of Mexico’s most beloved presidents.

• Palacio de Bellas Artes
• Teatro Hidalgo
• Parish of Santa Cruz
• Museo Nacional de la Estampa (National Print Museum)
• Franz Mayer Museum
• Parish of La Santa Vera Cruz de San Juan de Dios
• Ex Temple of Corpus Christi

Mexico City’s Chinatown, known locally as “Barrio Chino”, is located on two blocks of Dolores Street, just south of the Palacio de Bellas Artes.

It is very small, consisting only of a number of restaurants and businesses that import goods. Its diminished size is because most descendants of Chinese immigrants to Mexico in the late 19th and early 20th centuries either intermarried with the local Mexican population and/or were expelled from the country in the 1930s.

Despite this, it is considered the nucleus of the approximately 3,000 families with Chinese heritage in Mexico City.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The term “metropolitan area” was coined and developed in the United States from the 1920s and is used most often to refer to a “large” city whose limits exceed those of the political-administrative unit that originally contained it; in the case of Mexico, this unit is the municipality.

Mexico City former 16 “boroughs” now became “municipalities”

Álvaro Obregón
Azcapotzalco
Benito Juárez
Coyoacán
Cuajimalpa
Cuauhtémoc
Gustavo A. Madero
Iztacalco
Iztapalapa
Magdalena Contreras
Miguel Hidalgo
Milpa Alta
Tláhuac
Tlalpan
Venustiano Carranza
Xochimilco

The 49 of 125 municipalities of the State of Mexico

Acolman
Amecameca
Apaxco
Atenco
Atizapán de Zaragoza
Atlautla
Axapusco
Ayapango
Chalco
Chiautla
Chicoloapan
Chiconcuac
Chimalhuacán
Coacalco de Berriozábal
Cocotitlán
Coyotepec
Cuautitlán
Cuautitlán Izcalli
Ecatepec de Morelos
Ecatzingo
Huehuetoca
Hueypoxtla
Huixquilucan
Isidro Fabela
Ixtapaluca
Jaltenco
Jilotzingo
Juchitepec
La Paz
Melchor Ocampo
Naucalpan de Juárez
Nextlalpan
Nezahualcóyotl
Nicolás Romero
Nopaltepec
Otumba
Ozumba
Papalotla
San Martín de las Pirámides
Tecámac
Temamatla
Temascalapa
Tenango del Aire
Teoloyucan
Teotihuacán
Tepetlaoxtoc
Tepetlixpa
Tepotzotlán
Tequixquiac
Texcoco
Tezoyuca
Tlalmanalco
Tlalnepantla de Baz
Tonanitla
Tultepec
Tultitlán
Valle de Chalco Solidaridad
Villa del Carbón
Zumpango

One conurbation municipality of the State of Hidalgo

Tizayuca

Another way to visualize these municipalities is by their intrastate regions. The Mexico City Metropolitan Area fully covers 5 regions (regiones naturales) in Mexico State, partly covers another 5 regions, the Federal District, and 1 municipality in Hidalgo.

The following regions of Mexico State lie completely within this metropolitan area:

Region XIV (Mexico State) (Tultitlan, 6 municipalities)
Region XI (Mexico State) (Texcoco, 7 municipalities)
Region XII (Mexico State) (Tlalnepantla,2 municipalities)
Region IX (Mexico State) (Nezahualcoyotl, 1 city)
Region III (Mexico State) (Chimulhuacan, 4 municipalities)

The definition of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area is positive, in that all municipalities form a single conurbation. By contrast, the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico is considered a normative definition, in that it incorporates 18 additional strategic municipalities in the territorial administration of the region, even if they have not been fully integrated yet. Many urban projects, mostly related to the improvement of air quality and water sanitation, are coordinated for all constituent municipalities of this agglomeration. The majority of the population reports of urban areas in Mexico refer to this agglomeration, and not to the MCMA conurbation.

Amecameca
Apaxco
Atlautla
Axapusco
Ayapango
Ecatzingo
Hueypoxtla
Isidro Fabela
Jilotzingo
Juchitepec
Nopaltepec
Otumba
Ozumba
Temascalapa
Tenango del Aire
Tepetlixpa
Tequixquiac
Villa del Carbón

All municipalities are within the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico. Together these 10 intrastate regions cover every single municipality within the Valley of Mexico Metropolitan Area except for the 1 municipality in Hidalgo State. (59 municipalities):

Region I (Mexico State) (Amecameca, 13 municipalities)
Region VIII (Mexico State) (Naucalpan, 5 municipalities)
Region IV (Mexico State) (Cuautitlan Izcalli, 5 municipalities)
Region V (Mexico State) (Ecatepec, 9 municipalities)
Region XVI (Mexico State) (Zumpango, 7 municipalities incl 1 new.)

Greater Mexico City spreads over the valley of Mexico, also called the valley of Anáhuac, a 9,560 km² (3,691 sq mi) valley that lies at an average of 2,240 m (7,349 ft) above sea level.

Originally, a system of interconnected lakes occupied a large area of the valley, of which Lake Texcoco was the largest. Mexico City was built on the island of Tenochtitlan in the middle of the lake.

During conquest of Mexico the dikes that protected the city from recurrent floods were destroyed and colonial authorities preferred to drain the water of the lake, which was, for the most part, shallow.

In 1900 president Porfirio Díaz inaugurated the Valley’s System of Drainage that hinders the growth of water bodies in the valley (and prevents floods). The basin of the valley of Mexico was thus integrated artificially to the Moctezuma river basin which connects to the Pánuco River.

The last remnants of the system of lakes are found in the boroughs of Xochimilco and Tláhuac, and in the municipality of Atenco.

The valley of Mexico is surrounded by mountains on all four sides creating a basin with only one small opening at the north, trapping all exhaust emissions of the city. At the southern part of the basin the mountain range reaches an altitude of 3,952 m (12,965 ft) above sea level; and to the east the volcanoes reach an altitude of more than 5,000 m (16,000 ft).

The region receives anti-cyclonic systems, producing weak winds that do not allow for the dispersion of accumulated air pollutants, produced by the 50,000 industries operating in Greater Mexico City and the 4 million vehicles circulating in its roads and highways.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Metro station Revolucion.

If you walking along the Paseo de la Reforma from Chapultepec to the Historic Center, then just take a left after the Roundabout of the Women Who Fight, formerly there was the Monument to Columbus (Columbus roundabout).

Mexico City’s iconic monument in real-time.

Today, Paseo de la Reforma has transformed into a vibrant and bustling avenue filled with a wide range of tourist attractions, luxury restaurants and hotels, office buildings, art exhibitions, and new construction.

Paseo de la Reforma has become a traditional place for the Mexicans to celebrate or protest. Most protest rallies commonly go along Paseo de la Reforma from the Angel to the Zócalo or from the Zócalo to Los Pinos.

Many parades also pass through the whole Paseo de la Reforma. The iconic Angel of Independence roundabout is a traditional place to celebrate the victories of the national football team, mainly during the World Cup.

19th century

During the Second French Intervention in Mexico in 1864, the Republican government was in hiding in northern Mexico, and the government of Maximilian I was consolidated in power in Mexico City.

He proclaimed, and in some cases initiated, a number of reforms aimed at modernizing the country. These included the construction of infrastructure to improve internal communications, including roads and railways.

One such type of project was the creation of a series of boulevards imitating European boulevards, such as the Ringstrasse in Vienna, or the boulevards then being built in Paris under Napoleon III, with grand monuments.

Two such projects were started: one on Avenida Chapultepec, which was never completed, and another to connect Mexico City with its residence in Chapultepec Castle (where Emperor Maximilian I then resided).

The latter was named Paseo de la Emperatriz in honor of his wife and consort – Empress Carlota. Austrian mining engineer Alois Bolland was appointed project manager and designed what was eventually built.

The route and construction of the six boulevards radiating from the Zocalo, Mexico City’s main square, were entrusted to a committee of distinguished architects and artists. The committee’s original proposal was planned.

This would require the demolition of a large part of the buildings in the city.

Was decided to start a boulevard on what was then the outskirts of the city, 1.5 km west of the Zócalo, where Avenida Bucareli intersects with Avenida Juárez and where the equestrian statue of Charles IV of Spain stood.

From there, the Paseo route led to the lower part of the royal residential area at Chapultepec Castle, where it connected with the road leading to the hilltop castle.

The construction of the boulevard was entrusted to the Austrian engineers and included 2 vehicular paths, each 9 m wide, a central island 1.5 m wide, and 2 side walkways, each 9 m wide, decorated with ornamental plants and trees.

The city government and the owners of the agricultural land along the route opposed the plan. Reasons included the fragility of the land, which was the reclaimed lake bed of Lake Texcoco, and that the saltiness of the soil would supposedly not support the lush vegetation required.

Despite opposition, the project continued. After a competition, it was assigned to the brothers Juan and Ramón Agea under the supervision of the Ministry of Development, Colonization, Industry and Commerce, headed by Luis Robles Pezuela.

Of the original 3.15 km-long project, only one part was completed between 1864 and 1865, a road 20 m wide, which was enormous for those days, without a central median, only a few areas on the side reserved for horses to rest.

There were practically no buildings along the boulevard and sidewalks were not considered necessary.

The Paseo didn’t include bridges or similar constructions to cross the canals and rivers which then flowed near what is now Colonia Tabacalera (then Hacienda de la Teja).

The Paseo was at this time for the exclusive use of the imperial court, a policy enforced by a dedicated police force. At the time, people with horses or horses and carriages promenaded along the Paseo de Bucareli (today Avenida Bucareli between Avenidas Juárez and Chapultepec.

After the downfall of the Second Mexican Empire and the restoration of the republic in 1867, the Paseo de la Emperatriz was forgotten. The Paseo was renamed Paseo Juárez and then again renamed Paseo de Degollado in honor of General Santos Degollado.

On February 17, 1867, the Paseo officially opened to the public while work continued on it.

By 1870 it had tree-lined pedestrian medians between “el Caballito” and the Palm Tree Roundabout, carried out by the Ministry of Development under Francisco P. Herrera. Between 1872 and 1876 an eight-meter bridge was built at Hacienda de la Teja and the pedestrian medians were completed all the way to Chapultepec.

Eucalyptus and ash trees and willows were planted and four monumental roundabouts were built between the Palm Tree Roundabout and Avenida Juárez. In 1872 the boulevard was renamed Paseo de la Reforma.

On its flanks, upscale subdivisions were built, Colonia Americana – today Colonia Juárez, and Colonia Cuauhtémoc. The French style of the area was epitomized at the time by frequent comparisons of Paseo de la Reforma to the Champs Elysées in Paris.

Renovation

In 2003, Mexico City’s government started a renewal program for Paseo de la Reforma.

It included the maintenance of the existent gardens and the creation of new ones, the intensive cleaning and sweeping of streets and sidewalks, the construction of new pink quarry sidewalks and benches, the creation of access bays in the Zoo, lake, and Modern Art Museum for touristic and school buses, the installation of new lighting, the moving of the monument to Cuauhtémoc to the crossing of Insurgentes Avenue and Paseo de la Reforma, the construction of prism-shaped concrete structures in the median which also have plants and flowers, the promotion of Reforma as a cultural walk organizing different expositions along the avenue sidewalks, and the maintenance of the monuments, sculptures, and fountains.

Also, a tourist route that goes from Chapultepec Park to the Historic Center along Reforma was established by a double-deck bus called Turibus.

With the renewal project, new life has come to the avenue. It has become a main attraction of the city and the most expensive one to build on. However, after many of Mexico City’s banks and businesses left Paseo de la Reforma for the Santa Fe business district in the last decade, the boulevard has been the center of a real estate renaissance.

Remarkable buildings built in recent years are Torre Mayor, Torre HSBC in the Ángel roundabout, Torre Libertad with St. Regis Hotel in the Diana fountain roundabout, and Reforma 222 designed by famous Mexican architect Teodoro González de León at Reforma and Havre St. Recently opened mix-used developments include a Ritz-Carlton Hotel & Residences and a Park Hyatt Hotel & Residences.

Architecture

During President Díaz’s regime, Paseo de la Reforma became very popular among elite families as a residential area. Few of these original houses built in different European architectural styles remain and office blocks have been built in their place over the years.

Although there is no single block that has kept its former architecture, a couple of scattered buildings show the opulence enjoyed by the elites during Porfirio Díaz’s regime.

Although most of the modern buildings are unremarkable, the Art Deco Loteria Nacional building and the functionalist IMSS building are an exception. Today Paseo de la Reforma houses offices ranging from the Mexican Federal Government to Banks and brokerage houses. The newer buildings show a mix of contemporary styles and the commonly used style for office buildings.

Five skyscrapers were recently along the boulevard between the entrance to Chapultepec Park and the Diana the Huntress fountain: Torre Reforma (244m), Punto Chapultepec (238m), Torre BBVA Bancomer (235m), and Torre Diana (158m).

Monuments

Many monuments to people and events in Mexico’s history and the history of the Americas are situated on and along Reforma.

Honored people include the Niños Héroes – the Heroic Cadets of the Battle of Chapultepec – with a particularly grand monument at the entrance of Chapultepec Park, a Monument to Cuauhtémoc, Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín.

There is also a fountain with sculptures that commemorate the nationalization of Mexico’s oil reserves and industry in 1938, and the Diana the Huntress fountain that includes a statue featuring the Roman goddess Diana originally named The Arrow Thrower of the North Star.

One of the most famous monuments of the Paseo is the Angel of Independence – a tall column with a gilded statue of a Winged Victory (that bears resemblance with an angel, therefore its common name) on its top and many marble statues on its base depicting the heroes of the Mexican War of Independence, built to commemorate the centennial of Mexico’s independence in 1910.

The base contains the tombs of several key figures in Mexico’s War of Independence.

Monument to the Revolution

Near the central section of Reforma, across from the Alameda, is the Monument to the Revolution.

This is an enormous dome supported by four arches. It was originally planned, by Porfirio Díaz, to be a part of a new parliament building, but it never was completed because of the start of the Mexican Revolution.

After Díaz’s overthrow, it became a monument to the revolution that deposed him.

The remains of Francisco I. Madero and several other heroes of the Mexican Revolution are buried here.

In order from Chapultepec toward the Historic Center:

• Petrolios Fountain
• Jose Rizal Monument
• Diana the Huntress Fountain
• Angel of Independence
• Ahuehuete Roundabout (Palm Tree Roundabout)
• Cuauhtemoc Monument
• Roundabout of the Women Who Fight (Columbus Monument)
• Fountain of the Republic
• Simon Bolivar Monument
• Monument to Jose de San Martin
• Monument to Cuitlahuac

Before the conquest, the area that the Zócalo occupied was an open space, in the center of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.

It was bordered:

• The “New Houses” or Palace of Moctezuma II in the east
• The “Old Houses”, the palace of Axayácatl, in the west

From 1469 to 1481, the Axayacatl Palace was the residence of Emperor Ahuizotl, Moctezuma’s uncle and immediate predecessor.

The European-style plaza was not part of the Aztec Empire’s capital. Tenochtitlan had a sacred area or “teocalli” that was the absolute center of the city, but it was located north and northeast of the modern Zócalo.

Post-conquest (1519–1821)

The modern Zócalo was founded by Alonso García Bravo shortly after the invasion and destruction of Tenochtitlan. Cortés redesigned the city for symbolic purposes, maintaining four main neighborhoods called “Capullis”.

The Cathedral of Mexico City was erected at the intersection of these neighborhoods.

The Plaza was divided into the “Plaza Mayor” (Main Square) in the southern half and the “Plaza Chica” (Small Square) in the northern half. Over time, the growing city absorbed the Plaza Chica.

The Plaza was bordered by the Cathedral to the north, Cortés’s new palace to the east, Portales de Mercaderes (Merchants’ Portals) on the west, and the Portal of the Flowers and the House of the Ayuntamiento on the south.

During early colonial times, the Plaza faced challenges like flooding. In 1629, the Plaza was flooded with water two meters deep, causing damage to merchants and requiring reconstruction.

The construction of the Cathedral in the latter half of the 16th century altered the Plaza’s appearance. The Plaza became crowded with market stalls in the 17th century. Attempts to clear the Plaza for the Parian, a set of shops, were made but were only partially successful.

In 1789, Charles IV of Spain proclaimed the clearing of the Plaza, and Viceroy Juan Vicente Güemes Pacheco undertook renovations.

The Plaza was repaved, gutters covered with stone blocks, and fountains installed. The Aztec Calendar was unearthed during this work. The Plaza was converted into a public space with benches, lamps, and iron grating separating it from the Cathedral.

The Plaza underwent significant changes in the early 19th century, with the addition of an equestrian statue of Charles IV by Manuel Tolsá.

It was inaugurated in 1803 and became the backdrop for events during the Mexican War of Independence. The Plaza was renamed the “Plaza of the Constitution,” marking its role in the historical context.

The last changes before Independence in 1821 included the placement of the Cross of Mañozca and another cross by Manuel Tolsá at different corners of the Plaza. These were set on Neoclassical pedestals.

Independence and the 1828 Parián Riot

A symbolic move upon Independence was the dismantling and removal of the equestrian monument to Charles IV from Plaza.

The statue itself can still be seen in front of the National Art Museum where its current, and much smaller, base states that it is preserved solely for its artistic value.

The statue’s former oval base was moved to what was then the University building and the balustrade was moved to the Alameda Central. This left the Plaza bare except for the Parian.

On 4 and 5 December 1828, the Parián market, the most active of Mexico City’s markets, was looted and damaged by a popular uprising. Several merchants died and most were ruined.

President Santa Anna finally had the Parián demolished in 1843. This left the Plaza bare again, except for some ash trees and flower gardens that were planted and protected by stone borders.

Santa Anna wanted to build a monument to Mexican Independence in the center of the Plaza but his project got only as far as the base (zócalo), which stayed there for decades and gave the Plaza its current popular name.

It stayed this way until 1866 when the Paseo del Zócalo was created in response to the number of people who were using the plaza to take walks. A garden with footpaths was created, fountains were placed at each corner, 72 iron benches were installed and the area was lighted by hydrogen gas lamps.

Santa Anna’s base, however, was not removed.

Era of the Porfiriato

In 1878, Antonio Escandon donated a kiosk to the city which was set over and on top of Santa Anna’s base. It was lit with four large iron candelabras and designed to be similar to one in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris.

Soon afterward, the part of the Zócalo was converted into a streetcar station with a ticket kiosk and stand. The streetcars and lighting were converted to electric power in 1894, and the Zócalo’s paths were paved with asphalt in 1891.

From the latter half of the 19th century to the beginning of the twentieth, the Zócalo was again filled with market stalls, including the “Centro Mercantil” which sold fabric, clothing, and Art Nouveau stonework.

The other stalls concentrated on more mundane merchandise. This caused pedestrians to take their walks on Alameda Central or on San Francisco and Madero streets, to the west of the Zócalo.

Zocalo in 1951

20th century

During the Decena Trágica (the ten days from 9 to 19 February 1913), the National Palace was bombarded from the nearby military fort, incidentally damaging the Zócalo.

In 1914, the ash trees planted in the previous century (which meanwhile had grown considerably) were taken out; new footpaths, grassy areas, and garden space were created; and palm trees were planted in each corner of the plaza.

The Zócalo was a meeting place for protests on 1 May. In 1968, students protested against the authoritarian measures taken by then-president Gustavo Díaz Ordaz. It was also the starting point of the marathon run in the 1968 Summer Olympics.

But the plaza deteriorated until, by the 1970s, all that was left were light poles and a large flagpole in the middle. Then the ground was leveled again, the train tracks taken out, and the whole plaza cemented over.

Automobile parking was prohibited and the plaza’s shape was squared to 200 m on each side. Later in the 1970s, the Zócalo was repaved with pink cobblestones; small trees protected by metal grates were planted, and small areas of grass were seeded around the flagpole.

By the end of the 20th century, the Zócalo and much of the city center, were in serious decline. The Zocalo and its surrounding area were a slum of gutted buildings, dark and dirty streets crowded with street vendors, and vacant lots littered with trash.

In the late 1990s, was launched a $300,000,000 renovation of the Zócalo and the surrounding city center.

21st century

Was launched a campaign to perform maintenance works in the Historic Center.

In 2010, a replica of the Angel de la Independencia was brought to Zócalo as a way of spreading out the protesters from the original Angel site, which is located in a financial area, with a high traffic flow, making policing more difficult than the Zócalo.

Explore Mexico City’s iconic square in real time.

In 1785 Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez ordered the construction of a stately home for himself at the highest point of Chapultepec Hill. Francisco Bambitelli, Lieutenant Colonel of the Spanish Army and engineer, drew up the blueprint and began the construction on August 16 of the same year.

After Bambitelli’s departure to Havana, Captain Manuel Agustín Mascaró took over the leadership of the project and during his tenure the works proceeded at a rapid pace. Mascaró was accused of building a fortress with the intent of rebelling against the Spanish Crown from there. Bernardo, the viceroy, died suddenly on November 8, 1786, fueling speculation that he was poisoned. No evidence has yet been found which supports this claim.

Lacking a head engineer, the Spanish Crown ordered that the building be auctioned at a price equivalent to one-fifth of the quantity thus far spent thereon. After finding no buyers Viceroy Juan Vicente de Güemes Pacheco de Padilla y Horcasitas intended the building to house the General Archive of the Kingdom of the New Spain; that idea was not to prosper either despite already having the blueprints adapted for this purpose.

Alexander von Humboldt visited the site in 1803 and condemned the sale of the palace’s windows by the Royal Treasury as a way of raising funds for the Crown. The building was finally bought in 1806 by the municipal government of Mexico City.

Chapultepec Castle was abandoned during the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821) and for many years later, until 1833. In that year the building was decreed to become the location of the Colegio Militar (Military Academy); as a sequence of several structural modifications had to be done, including the addition of the watchtower known as Caballero Alto (“Tall Knight”).

On September 13, 1847, the Niños Héroes (“Hero Children”) died defending the castle while it was taken by United States forces during the Battle of Chapultepec of the Mexican-American War. They are honored with a large mural on the ceiling above the main entrance to the castle.

The United States Marine Corps honors the Battle of Chapultepec and the subsequent occupation of Mexico City through the first line of the “Marines’ Hymn,” From the Halls of Montezuma. Marine Corps tradition maintains that the red stripe worn on the trousers of officers and noncommissioned officers, and commonly known as the blood stripe commemorates the high number of Marine NCOs and officers killed storming the castle of Chapultepec in 1847.

Several new rooms were built on the second floor of the palace during the tenure of President Miguel Miramón, who was also an alumnus of the Military Academy.

The castle, now known as Castillo de Miravalle, started to acquire its current look during the Second Mexican Empire, when Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and his wife Empress Carlota chose it as their residence and the seat of their Court in 1864. The Emperor hired several European and Mexican architects, among them Julius Hofmann, Carl Gangolf Kayser, Carlos Schaffer, Eleuterio Méndez and Ramón Cruz Arango, to design the several projects, which followed a neoclassical style and made the palace more habitable. European architects Kayser and Hofmann worked on several other revival castles, including Neuschwanstein Castle – built by Maximilian’s Wittelsbach cousin Ludwig II of Bavaria twenty years after Chapultepec’s renovation.

Botanist Wilhelm Knechtel was in charge of creating the aerial garden located on the roof of the building. Additionally, the Emperor brought from Europe countless pieces of furniture, objets d’art and other fine household items that are exhibited to this day.

At this time, the castle was still located on the outskirts of Mexico City. Maximilian ordered the construction of a straight boulevard (modeled after the great boulevards of Europe, such as Vienna’s Ringstrasse and the Champs-Élysées in Paris), to connect the Imperial residence with the city centre, and named it Paseo de la Emperatriz (“Promenade of the Empress”). Following the reestablishment of the Republic in 1867 by President Benito Juárez and the end of the Reform War (Guerra de Reforma) the boulevard was renamed Paseo de la Reforma.

The castle fell into disuse after the fall of the Second Mexican Empire in 1867. in 1876, a decree established it as an Astronomical, Meteorological and Magnetic Observatory on the site, which was opened in 1878. However, the observatory was only functional for five years until they decided to move it to the former residence of the Archbishop in Tacubaya. The reason was to allow the return of the Colegio Militar to the premises as well as transforming the building into the presidential residence.

The palace underwent several structural changes from 1882 and during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz. The other Presidents who made the palace their official residence were Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio and Abelardo Rodríguez. It was used for a time as an official guest house or residence for foreign dignitaries.

Finally on February 3, 1939, President Lázaro Cárdenas decreed a law establishing Chapultepec Castle as the seat of the National Museum of History (Museo Nacional de Historia) with the collections of the former National Museum of Archaeology, History and Ethnography, (now the National Museum of Cultures). The museum was opened on September 27, 1944. President Cárdenas moved the official Mexican presidential residence to Los Pinos, and never lived in Chapultepec Castle.

• In 1996, the castle was a film location for the Academy Award-nominated movie William Shakespeare’s Romeo + Juliet starring Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes. Many views of the castle as the Capulet Mansion can be seen throughout the film.
• In the 1954 American war film Vera Cruz starring Gary Cooper and Burt Lancaster, Chapultepec was portrayed using elaborate sets and decor.
• In the 2006 video game Ghost Recon: Advanced Warfighter, a level existed in and around the castle.
• Chapultepec Castle has been used as a model of castle architecture to design buildings such as the 13th Regiment Armory (Sumner Armory), in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, US.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Chapultepec Park is the second largest city park in Latin America, after the Santiago Metropolitan Park in Chile, measuring in total just over 686 hectares (1700 acres).

It is classed as one of the world’s largest and most visited urban parks, along with Bois de Boulogne in Paris, the Imperial Gardens in Tokyo, and Central Park in New York City.

The name “Chapultepec” means “at the grasshopper hill” in Nahuatl and refers to a large rock formation that is the center of the park’s first section.

Originally, this area was a forest outside of Tenochtitlan, once considered sacred in pre-Columbian times, but today it is entirely within the city (mostly in the borough of Miguel Hidalgo), surrounded by some of its primary business and commercial districts.

The park is divided into three sections, the first and oldest surrounded by fence and shut at night, and the other two left open.

It contains nine museums, amusement parks, winding paths, commemorative sculptures, lakes and fountains.

Paseo de la Reforma passes most of the park and cuts through a portion on the north side.

One of the park’s main functions is to be an ecological space for Greater Mexico City. It is considered the first and most important of Mexico City’s “lungs”, with trees that replenished oxygen to the Valley of Mexico.

It is a large unpaved area that allows for aquifer recharge, ameliorates the “heat-island” effect, and attracts rain. It is a refuge for migratory birds from Canada, the U.S. and other regions of Mexico, including the red-tailed hawk, the Harris’s hawk, wild ducks, geese, and others.

Anywhere from 38 to 60 species of birds can be found here, including some native non-migratory species such as the Yucatán canary and a type of heron called the “water dog”.

There are also more than a dozen species of reptiles and amphibians, and a number of species of various types that are in danger of extinction, including the axolotl, Goodeidae, alandrias, the carpenter bird, and the white-tailed hummingbird.

The park is home to a large number of Montezuma cypress, locally called “ahuehuete” trees, with some hundreds of years old. Many of them were planted by the Aztecs.

There are also 165 other species, mostly in the third section. It is estimated by city authorities that MXN$100 million are needed annually to maintain the ecology of the park.

For Mexico City residents, the park is valued as a cultural and historic area as well as green space. The area has vestiges showing human presence as far back as the Toltecs with a number ruins from the pre-Columbian through to the colonial period.

Archeological studies have unearthed and identified tombs associated with Teotihuacan, a Toltec altar on the summit of Chapultepec Hill, remains of a colonial era aqueduct, paths associated with Nezahualcoyotl, and an area where Aztec priests ingested peyote as part of religious rites.

One notable site is the Baths of Moctezuma, which was a systems of tanks, reservoirs, canals and waterfalls constructed by the Aztecs.

The Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia has the park, as well as the Castle of Chapultepec on the hill, listed as Mexican heritage sites. They submitted the area for consideration as a World Heritage Site in 2001.

The park received an estimated 15 million visitors each year, and daily visits exceed 250,000. Sunday is the most popular day to visit because the museums are free, and visitors may spend the entire day in one or more sections viewing the attractions, picnicking, or grilling.

Despite its local popularity, however, foreign visitors usually only see the small fraction of the park near the museums.

The park is easy to get to via public transportation. Metro Lines 1 and 7 have stations at park entrances to the east and south respectively. Several bus lines along Paseo de la Reforma.

The oldest and most visited portion of the park is called the “first section”. It is the most developed area, and it has a wrought iron fence and gates that extend around its perimeter.

It contains most of the best known of the park’s attractions, such as the Lago Menor (Small Lake), the Nezahuacoyotl Fountain, the Fuente de las Ranas, the Quixote Fountain, the Templanza Fountain, the Altar a la Patria, the Niños Héroes Obelisk, the Monumento a las Águilas Caídas (Monument to Fallen Eagles), The Ahuehuete, and the Baths of Moctezuma.

The best known museums in the park are in this section, including Museo Nacional de Historia-Chapultepec Castle, the Casa del Lago, the National Auditorium, the Centro Cultural del Bosque, the National Museum of Anthropology, the Rufino Tamayo Museum, and the Museo de Arte Moderno (Modern Art Museum).

It also contains the Chapultepec Zoo, the Jardín de la Tercera Edad, and the Audiorama.

These are connected by various paved paths, many of which have names such as the Avenue of the Poets, which is lined with bronze busts of famous literary figures. The pathway also has trees that are hundreds of years old.

This section of the park also contains the geological formation that gave the park/forest its name: Chapultepec Hill. It is a formation of volcanic rock and andesite, which is common in the Valley of Mexico and contains small caves and sand deposits.

“Chapultepec” in Nahuatl means “grasshopper hill” but it is not clear whether the “Chapul” (grasshopper) part refers to the shape of the hill, or the abundance of grasshoppers in the surrounding woods.

This hill was considered special during the pre-Hispanic period from the Toltecs in the 12th century to the Aztecs up to the time of the Conquest by the Spanish. Remains of a Toltec altar have been found at the top of the hill, a number of burials and its use was reserved only for Aztec emperors and other elite.

After the Conquest, a small chapel dedicated to the Archangel Michael was built on the hill by Claudio de Arciniega in the middle of the 16th century.

In the 18th century, the Spanish built the Chapultepec Castle, which initially was a summer retreat for viceroys.

After the Independence, the Castle remained for the elite, becoming the official resident of the Mexico’s heads of state, including the Emperor Maximilian, who had the Paseo de la Reforma built to connect this area with the historic center of the city. During this time, the Castle and the gardens around it were enlarged and embellished a number of times, giving the Castle a floorspace of 10,000 square m. The most outstanding of the patios and garden is the Alcázar.

In 1940, the president’s residence was moved to the nearby Los Pinos complex and the castle was converted into the National Museum of History, under the auspices of the federal government, along with the rest of the hill.

The museum contains twelve rooms which are open to the public, many of which as they were when the Emperor Maximilian lived there.

It also contains a collection of furniture from the colonial period to the 19th century, utensils, suits, coins, manuscripts, sculptures in clay ivory and silver, and many other art works.

A number of items belonged to figures such as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, José María Morelos y Pavón, Agustín de Iturbide, Benito Juárez, Emiliano Zapata, and others. In addition, there are murals by José Clemente Orozco, David Alfaro Siqueiros and Juan O’Gorman.

At the foot of the hill, there is a large monument to the Niños Héroes (also called the Altar a la Patria), who reportedly threw themselves to their death at the Castle rather than surrenderring to invading U.S. troops in 1847.

This monument consist of six marble columns surrounding a mausoleum with the remains of the six cadets, and a figure of a woman who represents Mexico.

The Chapultepec Zoo

The Chapultepec Zoo is the most visited attraction of the park, especially on Sundays. It is estimated that half of all park visitors come to the zoo.

The zoo was established by Alfonso L. Herrera, a biologist, and opened in 1924. Herrera’s intention was to reestablish the zoo tradition of the old Aztec emperors and improve upon it. He began with species native to Mexico and then added others from the rest of the world. He modeled the zoo after the Bioparco di Roma in Rome, Italy.

Between 1950 and 1960, the zoo expanded and added new species. In 1975, the zoo obtained two pandas from China. Since then, at least eight panda cubs have been born at the zoo, making it the first institution outside of China to breed the species.

From 1992 to 1994, the zoo was completely remodeled, categorizing exhibits by habitat rather than type of species. Some of the most important Mexican species at the facility include a rabbit native to only a few volcanoes in Mexico, zacatuche (or teporingo), the Mexican wolf, ocelot, jaguar and ajolote.

Today, it has 16,000 animals of 270 species, separated into four sections according to habitat: tropical forest, temperate forest, desert and grassland. About one third of the animals are native to Mexico.

National Museum of Anthropology

Most of the museums in the first section are located along Paseo de la Reforma.

Of all of the museums in the park, the most famous is the National Museum of Anthropology, considered one of the most famous archeological museums in the world. The museum has a number of antecedents beginning from the colonial period, but the current institution was created in the 1960s with the building and grounds designed by architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez.

This museum has an area of 44,000m2 and 25 exhibit halls with sections devoted to each of the major pre-Hispanic civilizations in Mexico, including the Aztec, Maya, Toltec and Olmec. The permanent collection is quite large, and many visitors spend several hours seeing it. There are also temporary exhibits displayed year-round.

Rufino Tamayo Museum

The Rufino Tamayo Museum is in the first section on Paseo de la Reforma. The permanent collection mostly focuses on the namesake, but there are also works by other Mexican and foreign artists that Tamayo donated. During his lifetime, Tamayo collected one of the most important collections of 20th-century art, which included art works from Andy Warhol, Picasso, Miró, Fernando Botero, Magritte, and about 100 others.

Museum of Modern Art

The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is located on Paseo de la Reforma and Calle Gandhi, and it hosts various temporary exhibits. The museum’s complex was constructed using modern architecture techniques, which consisted of two circular buildings surrounding a sculpture garden. It contains one of the leading collections of modern art of the 20th century of Mexico. Artists include Dr. Atl, Frida Kahlo, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Remedios Varo.

Casa de Cultura Quinta Colorada

The Casa de Cultura Quinta Colorada was originally a former accommodation for the forest rangers of the area in the early 20th century. The house was made using European style architecture techniques. It hosts various cultural activities for visitors and has a small planetarium.

Museum of History (Museo del Caracol)

At the foot of the Chapultepec Hill is an extension of the Museum of History called the Museo del Caracol (Snail Museum). This museum narrates the history of Mexico in the winding form of a snail, the shape of the building from which its name comes.

Luis Barragán House and Studio

The Luis Barragán House and Studio is the former home of architect Luis Barragán. The house was kept nearly intact since 1948, including the workshop. It also exhibits artworks from the 19th and 20th century.

Lago Menor (Smaller Lake)

One of the most popular features in the first section is an artificial lake called the Lago Menor (Smaller Lake). It is one of two lakes in the park; the larger one, Lago Major, is in the second section. Lagor Menor, however, attracts more visitors than the other.

Visitors can rent paddleboats and small rowboats at the lake. The Lago Menor was created at the late 19th century, when the entire first section (then the entire park) was redesigned.

Casa del Lago

At the same time Lago Menor was created, the Casa del Lago was constructed. It is shallow with an average depth of a little over one meter. The Casa del Lago, also called the Restauranto del Lago, is now a restaurant that serves continental food and some Mexican dishes.

Fountain of Chapultepec

In addition to the lake, there are a number of large fountains. The Quixote Fountain is surrounded by four benches covered in tile with images of Don Quixote. To the side of this plaza, there are two columns. On the right there is a figure of Quixote with the face of Salvador Dalí and on the other side, there is a depiction of Sancho Panza with the face of Diego Rivera. Both statues were made of bronze by José María Fernández Urbina.

The Fuente de las Ranas (Fountain of the Frogs) was created in the 1920s, by Miguel Alessio Robles in Seville, Spain.

The Nezahualcoyotl Fountain was inaugurated in 1956. It measures 1,250m2 and surrounds a statue of the Aztec ruler nine meters tall in black stone.

Trees

Throughout the first section there are different kinds of trees; the most common one is the Montezuma cypress, locally called “ahuehuetes”. A number of these are hundreds of years old, although there are far fewer due to a past disease epidemic. One dead specimen is called the Ahuehuete of Moctezuma, commonly referred to as El Sargento (The Sargeant) or as the Centinela (Sentinel). The last two names were given by cadets of the Heroic Military Academy during the 19th century. The 500-year-old tree remains as a monument to the area’s history, measuring fifteen meters high, forty in circumference. Another tree of the species, still living, is El Tlatoani, which is more than 700 years old and is the oldest tree in the park. In addition to these trees, there are sequoias, cedars, palms, poplars, pines, ginkgos, and more.

Los Pinos

Los Pinos has been the official residence of the presidents of Mexico since 1941. Though the presidential residence is inside the park, there is no public access to it. The residence is made up of white stucco structures; this architecture can be seen from Molino del Rey, a former millhouse and site of a battle of the Mexican–American War in 1847. Los Pinos is on one edge of the park.

The National Auditorium

The National Auditorium is one of Mexico City’s principal arenas. It primarily hosts musical ensembles and dance troupes. Singers from Mexico and abroad perform there yearlong.

Cultural events

The park hosts a number of cultural events during the year. One of them is the performance of Swan Lake, which is conducted on a stage in Lago Menor. This performance has been given since 1978 in warmer months. Night tours by train that go around the park are popular around Christmas time, when many of the attractions are lit for the season. The Ballet Folklórico de México also holds performances on occasion at the Chapultepec Castle.

The second section of the park was created in 1964 by expanding over former farmlands. This section is separated by Anillo Periférico road and measures 160.02 hectares. It is not as developed as the first section, but it is also dedicated to recreational activities. Lago Mayor overlaps with the second section; this part of the lake contains the Monumental Fountain, the largest one in Latin America. It is surrounded by several restaurants and cafés. Nearby are the Compositores, Xochipilli and Las Serpientes fountains.

The area contains jogging trails, places for yoga and karate, and other exercise facilities on the tree areas. Around 1,000 people each day go to this section to exercise. The jogging trails were doubled from 2 km to 4 km in the late 2000s.

One part of this section is dominated by the Feria de Chapultepec amusement park, located near the Lago Mayor, just off the Anillo Periférico. The park has a capacity of 15,000 people and is visited by about two million each year. It includes several roller coasters, including the Montaña Infinitum.

This section contains museums such as Papalote Museo del Niño, the Technology Museum of the Federal Electricity Commission, and the Museo de Historia Natural. El Papalote Museo del Niño is an interactive children’s museum which invites children to touch and manipulate the exhibits. The Technology Museum consists of four very large halls which exhibit modern advances in technology. In its surrounding gardens, there are old locomotives, railcars and tracks. It also contains an auditorium for events and a planetarium. The Museo de Historia Natural focuses mostly on the origins of life with its permanent exhibits. It also hosts temporary exhibits and academic conferences.

The Cárcamo de Dolores hydraulic structure, found in this section, was built between 1942 and 1952 to capture water sent to the Valley of Mexico from the Lerma River basin in the Toluca Valley. The major parts open to the public consist of a pavilion, covered with an orange half cupola and a fountain with an image of Tlaloc. Originally, the water was stored underground and pumped to the surface when needed. The main building has serpent heads on the four corners and there is a mural painted by Diego Rivera called “El agua: origen de la vida”.

In 2010, the second section of the park underwent rehabilitation, funded in part by a private charity group called Probosque de Chapultepec. Most of the work was done on the jogging track, the Tlaloc Fountain, the Cárcamo de Dolores building, the mural “El agua: origen de la vida”, and the construction of an agora. These works together form the Museo Jardín del Agua (Water Garden Museum). In addition, a large number of dead trees were removed and about 800 new ones planted.

The third section of the park is located on the west side of the second and was inaugurated in 1974. It has a surface area of 242.9 hectares. It is the least developed and least visited; it is filled with trees and wildlife.

Although some recreational activities such as archery and horseback riding are practiced there, the importance of this area is primarily as an ecological preserve for various species of flora and fauna, such as snakes and lizards.

In 1992, it was decreed as a Protected Natural Area.

In 2010, there were reports of feral dogs attacking visitors in the third section.
Approximately 150 feral dogs were living in the small canyon areas of this section that year.

According to archeological studies, there has been human presence in the area since at least the pre-Classic period. The first identified culture archeologists have evidence for is the Toltecs. The Toltecs named the area “grasshopper hill”, which would later become “Chapultepec”. Remains of a Toltec altar have been found on the hill’s summit. In the Classic Period, the area was occupied by people of the Teotihuacan culture. When the Mexicas, or Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it was inhabited by a people called the Tepanecas of Azcapotzalco.

When the Aztecs took over the Valley of Mexico, they considered the hill as both a sacred and strategic site. They began to use the area as a repository for the ashes of their rulers, and the area’s springs became an important source of fresh water for the capital of Tenochtitlan. Eventually, the area became a retreat strictly limited to the ruling and religious elite. In the 1420s, ruler Nezahualcoyotl was the first to build a palace in the area. Moctezuma II built reservoirs to raise exotic fish and to store water. He also had trees and plants from various parts of the Aztec Empire planted here. In 1465, Moctezuma I ordered his portrait carved into a rock at the foot of the hill and constructed the Tlaxpana aqueduct, which measured three km.

During the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, one of the last battles between the Spanish and ruler Cuauhtémoc occurred at Chapultepec Hill in 1521. Shortly thereafter, the Franciscans built a small hermitage over the indigenous altar on Chapultepec Hill. Hernán Cortés appropriated Chapultepec and granted the northern portion to Captain Juan Jaramillo, who would become the husband of La Malinche. However, in 1530, Charles V decreed the area as the property of the Mexico City and open to it to the public. The Spanish continued to use the Aztec aqueduct, but in 1771, another one was deemed necessary for the growing population of Mexico City. The Chapultepec aqueduct led water from the springs of the forest to an area in what was the south of the city, called Salto del Agua. It flowed over 904 arches and 3,908 meters. In 1785, the Franciscan hermitage was demolished to make way for the Chapultepec Castle, converting the hill and the forest around it into a summer retreat for colonial viceroys. The area was walled off from the general public and was the scene of elegant parties.

After Mexico achieved independence in 1821, the Castle became the official residence of the head of state. A number of these, especially Emperor Maximilian I and his wife, embellished and expanded the castle as well as the forest area around it. The Hill was also the site of the Battle of Chapultepec in 1847, between Mexican and U.S. troops led by General Winfield Scott. A band of cadets were at the Castle when it was attacked and near the end of the battle, six of them decided to jump to their deaths from the castle on the hill to the rocks below. These six are referred to as the “Niños Héroes” and are honored by a monument near where their bodies fell. The castle remain the official residence of Mexican presidents until 1940, when this function as moved to the Los Pinos residence and the Castle was converted into a museum.

Since then, the park has been expanded twice, adding the second section in 1964 and the third section ten years later. Since then, the focus has been on the maintenance of the area. By 1998, the paths of the park, especially in the first section, were saturated with over 3,000 peddlers with few regulations or norms.

In 2005, the first section of the park was closed for renovations, effectively evicting all vendors from the area. When it reopened months later, permits for selling were strictly limited and police began to crack down on vendors in the park. However, some vendors continue to operate illegally and exchange information on the police’s steps with radio communication equipment. At the entrances to the park, where the vendor restrictions are not in place, some vendors sometimes block the entrances and cover signs so that visitors are forced to pass through their stands.

Maintenance issues have closed parts of the park from time to time. In 1985, the park was closed to exterminate rats and other pests. In 2005, the park was filled with trees in poor condition, had scum in the lakes, and had trash piles in several locations, including fountains. From that year until 2010, the park was closed section by section for restoration and rehabilitation projects. The first section was closed for eight months in 2005, for work that included dredging lakes, pruning and removing trees, picking up tons of debris, and expelling hundreds of vendors. Shortly thereafter, projects on the second and third sections of the park began, mostly to control or eliminate rats, feral dogs and cats, pigeons and other introduced species. In 2005, migratory birds began to make a comeback at the park with the eradication and relocation of introduced species such as geese and ducks, which were aggressive to other species. The park hosts more than 100 species of this kind of bird, with some reproducing here for the first time in decades. Other native mammals returned in 2005, including the tlacuache and the cacomistle.

In 2010, projects included renovating jogging tracks, and planting more than 800 trees, including acacia café, pino azul, pino peñonero, holm oak, pino moctezuma, pino prieto and grevilia, as well as the removal of dead or severely infected trees. These rehabilitation efforts of the 2000s were funded by a combination of government and private funds from groups like Probosque.

Metro Chapultepec or Auditorio
There are also a lot of “colectivos” along Paseo de la Reforma.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

A nearby chapel was built on the sacred site devoted to a temple for Tonantzin Coatlaxopeuh, an important mother goddess after the Spanish conquerors destroyed the temple.

Pilgrimages have been made to this shrine almost uninterrupted since 1531-32. In the latter year, a shrine had been constructed at the foot of Tepeyac Hill, which served the people for ninety years. It was adapted as part of the parochial sacristy of the new basilica.

In 1622 a rich shrine was erected; a newer one, much richer, in 1709. Other structures of the eighteenth century connected with it are a parish church, a convent and church for Capuchin nuns, a well chapel, and a hill chapel.

About 1750 the shrine got the title of collegiate, and a canonry and choir service were established. In 1754 it was aggregated to the Basilica of St. John Lateran.

In 1904 it was designated as a basilica.

For more than three hundred years, the virgin Mary of Guadalupe has been celebrated and revered in Mexico as the patroness of mexican and indian peoples, and as the queen of the Americas.

She stands on home altars, lends her name to men and women alike, and finds herself at rest under their skin in tattoos. Guadalupe’s image proliferates on candles, decals, tiles, murals, and old and new sacred art. Churches and religious orders carry her name, as do place names and streets. Far from vulgarizing her image, these items personalize her and maintain her presence in daily life. She is prayed to in times of sickness and war and for protection against all evils.

The legend of Guadalupe begins in december 1531 in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) when the Virgin Mary appeared four times to the indian peasant Juan Diego. He was on his way to mass when a beautiful woman surrounded by a body halo appeared to him with the music of songbirds in the background. As the birds became quiet, Mary announced “I am the entirely and ever virgin, saint Mary”. Assuring Juan Diego that she was his “compassionate mother” and that she had come out of her willingness to love and protect “all folk of every kind, she requested that he build a temple in her honor at the place where she stood, Tepeyac Hill, on the eastern edge of Mexico City. (This spot has been identified as the site where once stood a temple to the aztec goddess Tonantzin.)

Juan Diego went directly to the bishop of Mexico, Zumarraga, to relate this wondrous event. The churchman was skeptical and dismissed the humble peasant, who then returned to Tepeyac Hill to beseech the Virgin Mary to find a more prominent person who was less “pitiably poor” than he to do her bidding. Rejecting his protestations, the virgin urged him to return to the bishop and “indeed say to him once more how it is I myself, the ever virgin saint Mary, mother of god, who am commissioning you.”

Juan Diego returned to the churchman’s palace after mass, waited, and was finally able to enter his second plea on behalf of the virgin. This time, Zumarraga asked the humble native to request a sure sign directly from the “heavenly woman” as to her true identity. The bishop then had some members of his staff follow Juan Diego to check on where he went and whom he saw.

The next day, Juan Diego hastened to the bedside of his dying uncle, Juan Bernadino. The old man, gravely ill, begged his nephew to fetch a priest for the last rites of the church. The following morning, before dawn, Juan Diego set off on this mission. He tried to avoid the virgin because of his uncle’s worsening condition, but she intercepted him and asked “Whither are you going?” He confessed that it was on behalf of his uncle that he was rushing to summon a priest. During this third meeting, she assured him that the uncle was “healed up”, as she had already made a separate appearance to him. This visitation would start a tradition of therapeutic miracles associated with “our lady of Guadalupe”. She also comforted Juan Diego with the assurance that she would give him sure proof of her real identity.

On december 12, 1531 the virgin appeared to Juan Diego for the fourth time and bade him to go to the top of Tepeyac Hill and pick “Castilian garden flowers” from the normally barren summit. She helped him by “taking them up in her own hands” and folded them into his cloak woven of maguey plant fibers. Juan Diego then set off to Zumarraga’s palace with this sure sign of the virgin Mary of Guadalupe’s identity. As he unwrapped his cloak, the flowers tumbled at the churchman’s feet, and “suddenly, upon that cloak, there flashed a portrait, where sallied into view a sacred image of that ever virgin holy Mary, mother of god.”

This imprint of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe, the “miraculous portrait” as it is often called, hangs today in the Basilica of Gudalupe in Mexico City.

Since then Juan Diego never saw his halo woman again, but fortunately for the churchmen, the legend managed to spread and become popular, and until now almost all mexicans still believe in this old legend.

It’s difficult to say what really happened, whether the Spanish fooled the Indians or visaversa. And who did the Mexican’s ancestors pray to in the temple built on the sacred spot of the goddess Tonatzin.. We will probably never know that.

However, it’s obvious that timing for the vision of Juan Diego was perfect for the church. And in the end of the day, it was indifferent wich celestial chancellery did the brand-new christians send thier prays to, as chatolicism was successfully taking footholds in Mexico..

Officially known as the “Templo Expiatorio a Cristo Rey,” the first structure of the old basilica was begun in 1695 and it was not finished until 1709. The major architect was Pedro de Arrieta. It is characterized by its doric interior and marble statues of Fray Juan de Zumárraga, archbishop at the time it was started, and Juan Diego, the peasant who saw the vision of the Virgin Mary. These are featured in the altarpiece that originally held the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe. (That altarpiece matches a similar one in the older chapel higher on the hill, which features the archangels Gabriel and Michael). The church was granted basilica status by Pope Pius X in 1904.

The icon of Juan Diego’s cloak was housed in this church from 1709 to 1974. In 1921 a bomb planted in a flower vase near the altar by an anticlerical terrorist exploded, causing great damage to the interior of the building. (In memory of this incident, the New Basilica displays an iron crucifix called “the attempt on Christ”.) The cloak survived undamaged.

As much of Mexico City was built on a former lake, the land was unstable and the old basilica was sinking. A new, more spacious basilica was built. The old one was closed for many years and repairs have recently finished. It is open to the public and perpetual adoration is held there. It is a very important place for Mexico City.

The present church was constructed on the site of an earlier 16th-century church that was finished in 1709, the Old Basilica. When this basilica became dangerous due to the sinking of its foundations, a modern structure called the New Basilica was built next to it; the original image of the Virgin of Guadalupe is now housed in this New Basilica.

Built between 1974 and 1976, the new Basilica has a circular floorplan so that the image of the Virgin can be seen from any point within the building. The circular structure is 100 meters (330 ft) in diameter and can accommodate up to 10,000 people.

The choir is located between the altar and the churchgoers to indicate that it, too, is part of the group of the faithful. To the sides are the chapels of the Santisimo and of Saint Joseph. It has 9 chapels on the upper floor.

Under the main floor are the Basilica’s crypts, with 15,000 niches and 10 chapels. Its seven front doors are an allusion to the seven gates of Celestial Jerusalem referred to by Christ.

In the Sanctuary grounds where the new Basilica is located there are also many other buildings, including the original chapel on the exact site of the apparitions to Juan Diego (Capilla del Cerrito) and the Old Basilica consecrated in 1709, as well as other chapels where Masses and other sacraments of the Church are celebrated daily.

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• Start with the Zócalo (Plaza de la Constitución)
• Metropolitan Cathedral
• Templo Mayor Museum.
• National Palace to see Diego Rivera’s murals
• Stroll down Francisco I. Madero Avenue
• Palacio de Bellas Artes
• Dinner in the Alameda Central area

• Chapultepec Park and Chapultepec Castle
• National Museum of Anthropology
• Neighborhoods of La Condesa and Roma
• Walking through Parque México.
• Nightlife in Zona Rosa or Polanco

• Rent a colorful trajinera (boat) to cruise through the canals
• Bring snacks and enjoy live mariachi music
• Museo Dolores Olmedo
  Coyoacán, exploring the Frida Kahlo Museum (Casa Azul)
• Enjoy dinner at a local market

• Take a guided tour of Teotihuacan
• Museum
• Return to Mexico City
• Visit the Plaza Garibaldi for live mariachi

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The human activity around Lake Texcoco highlights the development of settlements and civilizations in the region over thousands of years:

Agriculture (circa 5000 BCE): Agriculture around Lake Texcoco began approximately 7,000 years ago. Early inhabitants likely utilized the fertile lands surrounding the lake for cultivation, marking an important transition towards settled lifestyles.

Tlatilco Culture (1700-1250 BCE): Settlements began to emerge on the northeastern shore of Lake Texcoco. This period coincides with the appearance of the Tlatilco culture, known for its distinctive ceramic artifacts and cultural practices.

Tlatilco Culture (1250 BCE): By 1250 BCE, signs of the Tlatilco culture became prominent around Lake Texcoco, indicating a flourishing society engaged in trade and artistic expression.

Cuicuilco (800 BCE): Around 800 BCE, Cuicuilco emerged as a major power in the Valley of Mexico, dominating the region for approximately 200 years. Cuicuilco is notable for its impressive circular pyramid and advanced agricultural practices.

Post-Teotihuacan Era (600-800 BCE): Following the decline of Teotihuacan, other city-states appeared around Lake Texcoco under the influence of Toltecs and Chichimecs. These city-states coexisted peacefully for several centuries.

Lake Texcoco was a hub of human activity and cultural exchange. The lake’s fertile surroundings, combined with its strategic location, attracted various civilizations that left a lasting impact on the history and heritage of the Valley of Mexico.

At the beginning of the 14th century, the Aztec tribes came to the valley.

On the islands of Lake Texcoco, the Aztecs founded their cities. Aztecs settled on a group of small natural islands in Lake Texcoco. These islands provided natural defensive advantages and were surrounded by shallow lake waters.

The main island on which the Aztecs founded their capital, was originally a small rocky island in the western part of Lake Texcoco. Tenochtitlan was founded on that islet and was connected to the shore by a network of dams and floating gardens.

Over time, the Aztecs expanded the territory by creating artificial islands (chinampas). This expansion allowed them to significantly increase residential and agricultural areas around the capital.

Tenochtitlan became a powerful city-state and the center of the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlan’s strategic location on the lake contributed to its fame and success in the region.

The Aztecs built a system of dams to separate the lake’s salt water from sewage and rainwater.

This dam system also allowed the Aztecs to control lake levels.

During Aztec times, Lake Texcoco had 200 to 300 chinampas. These artificial islands were critical to agriculture and helped the Aztecs support their population in the region by providing fertile land for farming among the lake’s waters.

The artificial islands were connected one to another and to the shores by dams and artificial paths.

Due to its size and strategic location, the lake played a central role in the development of the Aztec Empire, providing water for agriculture and transportation, as well as serving as a natural protective barrier for Tenochtitlan.

Dams (or embankments) were used to create floating gardens and maintain the viability of cities on the islands. They also served to provide a route of communication between various parts of the lake and the shore.

These were structures made of earth, stones, and trees that were built to hold water and create paths for movement.

The Aztec ruler Ahuizotl attempted to build an aqueduct that would carry water from the mainland into the lakes surrounding the city of Tenochtitlan. The aqueduct failed and the city suffered severe flooding in 1502.

The Valley of Mexico had already begun to become shallow before the arrival of the Spaniards due to natural processes and human activity. Drainage and irrigation systems also affected the water level in Lake Texcoco and contributed to its gradual drying up.

The construction of canals, dams, and irrigation systems to support agriculture and urban livelihoods in the Valley of Mexico led to a decrease in the area of Lake Texcoco and its surrounding lakes.

Thus, changes in the size of Lake Texcoco are the result of a complex combination of natural processes and human influence on the environment over a long period of history.

During the Spanish siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the dams were destroyed. After the fall of the Aztec Empire, the Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlan’s water management system, which eventually led to floods.

Flooding became a serious problem in Mexico City, built on the ruins of the former Aztec capital. Flood control efforts resulted in most of the lake being drained, but Mexico City continued to suffer from periodic floods.

After the flood of 1604, there was another flood in 1607.

The drainage did not help, and the major flood in 1629 submerged much of Mexico City. The issue of moving the Mexico City was even discussed, but the Spanish authorities decided to preserve the existing location of the capital.

The Spanish began draining Lake Texcoco to control flooding and control the water. As a result of the construction of a drainage system to reduce the water level in the valley, Lake Texcoco gradually dried up.

This change had profound environmental consequences for the region and led to the gradual disappearance of the lake. The remnants of the lake were divided into smaller bodies of water – Xochimilco, Chalco, and Zumpango.

These lakes remained partially submerged and became the basis for the modern neighborhoods of Xochimilco and Chalco in Mexico City. Today, most of the lake’s former basin is almost entirely occupied by urban development.

The Valley of Mexico is a basin with an average elevation of 2236 m above mean sea level. This high altitude contributes to the region’s unique climatic and environmental characteristics. The valley is surrounded by mountains.

Previously, rainwater flowed into the lakes, which contributed to their size and interconnectedness. After the disappearance of Lake Texcoco and the drying up of other lakes, the hydrology of the valley changed dramatically.

Without these natural reservoirs, rainwater has difficulty finding its way out, leading to problems in managing water flow and increasing evaporation rates. As a result, much of the rainwater that flows into the valley evaporates.

About 72-79% of the rainwater that falls into the valley evaporates.

Today, the term “Lake Texcoco” refers only to a big area surrounded by salt marshes 4 km east of Mexico City, which covers the ancient lake bed. Also, there are small remnants of the lakes of Xochimilco, Chalco, and Zumpango.

The Lake Texcoco Ecological Park is an initiative by the Mexican government to create a vast urban park within the State of Mexico, an integral part of the vast urban area in the valley. Mexico, adjacent to Mexico City.

The park is scheduled to open in 2024. Its creation followed the cancellation of plans to build an airport on the same site, marking a significant shift towards green restoration and sustainable urban development.

Tenoch (or Tenuch) was a ruler of the Mexicas (Aztecs) during the 14th century during the Aztec travels from Aztlán to Tenochtitlan.

He was a respected chief who was elected to power by the Council of Elders and died in 1375. There is disagreement about whether Tenoch is a mythological person or a real Mexica leader who was later mythologized.

Tenoch was one of nine Mexica leaders who were told how Mexica could gain support from the forces of nature.

After traveling southward for 200 years, the Mexica found the sign. In honor of their leader, they named the small, reedy island in Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan soon became the capital of the Aztec Empire.

The Nahuatl symbols of his name are found in the Mexican flag: Tetl, the rock, and Nochtli, the prickly pear cactus.

Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl (“rock”) and nōchtli (“prickly pear”) and is often thought to mean, “Among the prickly pears (growing among) rocks”.

However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as “the Bancroft dialogues” suggests the second vowel was short so the true etymology remains uncertain.

Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2 (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco.

At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli.

The city was connected to the mainland by causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely.

The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.

Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the “levee of Nezahualcoyotl” was constructed, and reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl.

Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.

Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing.

For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day.

Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria americana), and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl (Agave americana).

Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote in his “The Conquest of New Spain”:

When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (…) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry.

And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream. (…) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.

The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, in Nahuatl named calpōlli); and each calpulli, or ‘big house’, was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli.

Three main streets crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses.

Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.

Marketplaces

Each calpulli (“large house”) had its marketplace, but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco – Tenochtitlan’s sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily.

Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.

Public buildings

In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces.

Inside a walled square, 500 meters to the side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc.

Other public buildings were the temple of Quetzalcoatl, the ball game court with the rack of skulls, the Sun Temple, the Eagle’s House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers, the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice, and some minor temples.

Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.

The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning.

Palaces of Moctezuma II

The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.

There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.

Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica regarding social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes. The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan.

The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders and lived in the confines of the island. Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess and were treated as nobles.

Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king.

Tlacohtin were individuals who chose to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide.

Finally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading.

The membership of this class was based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.

Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs.

The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.

Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpolli (big house), a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.

Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle eating a snake perched atop a cactus.

The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico’s coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavorable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as “floating gardens”) for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.

A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, and perhaps even the Inca Empire.

After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.

Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000, many scholars believe Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities in the world at that time.

Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice, and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII. In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba.

Cortes’ men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.

Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000, the most common estimates of the population are over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic survey sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 sq km.

It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had ruled over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.

When Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large empire, chose to welcome Cortés as an honored guest, rather than risk a war that might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people.

Moctezuma may have feared that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoatl because the Spanish arrival coincided with the close of an Aztec calendar cycle consistent with such a return. This claim is found in the Florentine Codex, however, some scholars doubt it.

As Cortés approached the great city of Tenochtitlan, the natives put on many events. Nobles lined each side along the buildings of the city’s main causeway, which extended about a league.

Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, who had two lords at his side, one being his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Cortés dismounted, and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but was forbidden to touch him.

Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.

They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés.

The ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have.

He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he so desired it.

Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Cortés faced early trouble. Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards.

He requested that officers be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.

When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and so led troops to storm Almería.

Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who commanded the officers to be executed.

Back in Tenochtitlan, Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him endlessly. Though no serious conclusions were made, this started the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.

The Siege of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was a decisive event in the Spanish conquest of Mexico. It occurred in 1521 following extensive manipulation of local factions and exploitation of preexisting divisions by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, who was aided by the support of his indigenous allies and his interpreter and companion Malinche.

Although numerous battles were fought between the Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led coalition, which was itself composed primarily of indigenous (mostly Tlaxcaltec) personnel, it was the siege of Tenochtitlan—its outcome probably largely determined by the effects of a smallpox epidemic (which devastated the Aztec population and dealt a severe blow to the Aztec leadership while leaving an immune Spanish leadership intact)—that directly led to the downfall of the Aztec civilization and marked the end of the first phase of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

The conquest of Mexico was a critical stage in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Ultimately, Spain conquered Mexico and thereby gained substantial access to the Pacific Ocean, which meant that the Spanish Empire could finally achieve its original oceanic goal of reaching the Asian markets.

The road to Tenochtitlan

In April 1519 Hernán Cortés, the Chief Magistrate of Santiago, Cuba, came upon the coast of Mexico at a point he called Vera Cruz with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14 small cannons. Governor Velázquez, the highest Spanish authority in the Americas, called for Cortés to lead an expedition into Mexico after reports from a few previous expeditions to Yucatán caught the interest of the Spanish in Cuba. Velázquez revoked Cortés’ right to lead the expedition once he realized that Cortés intended to exceed his mandate and invade the mainland. After Cortés sailed, Velázquez sent an army led by Pánfilo de Narváez to take him into custody.

But Cortés used the same legal tactic used by Governor Velázquez when he invaded Cuba years before: he created a local government and had himself elected as the magistrate, thus (in theory) making him responsible only to the King of Spain. Cortés followed this tactic when he and his men established the city of Veracruz. An inquiry into Cortés’ action was conducted in Spain in 1529 and no action was taken against him.

As he moved inland Cortés came into contact with several polities who resented Aztec rule; Cortés clashed with some of these polities, among them the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans. The latter surrounded his army on a hilltop for two agonizing weeks. Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote that his numerically inferior force probably would not have survived if it were not for Xicotencatl the Elder and his wish to ally with the Spaniards against the Aztecs.

It once was widely believed that the Aztecs first thought Cortés was Quetzalcoatl, a mythical god prophesied to return to Mexico—coincidentally in the same year Cortés landed and from the same direction he came. This is now believed to be an invention of the conquerors, and perhaps natives who wished to rationalize the actions of the Aztec tlatoani, Moctezuma II. Most scholars agree that the Aztecs, especially the inner circle around Moctezuma, were well convinced that Cortés was not a god in any shape or form.

Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other emissaries to meet Cortés at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries brought golden jewelry as a gift, which greatly pleased the Spaniards. According to the Florentine Codex, Lib. 12, f.6r., Moctezuma also ordered that his messengers carry the highly symbolic penacho (headdress) of Quetzalcoatl de Tula to Cortés and place it on his person. As news about the strangers reached the capital city, Moctezuma became increasingly fearful and considered fleeing the city but resigned himself to what he considered to be the fate of his people.

Cortés continued on his march towards Tenochtitlan. Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his troops prepared themselves for battle, armoring themselves and their horses, and arranging themselves in proper military rank. Four horsemen were at the lead of the procession. Behind these horsemen were five more contingents: foot soldiers with iron swords and wooden or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebuses; lastly, native peoples from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhquitepec, and Huexotzinco. The indigenous soldiers wore cotton armor and were armed with shields and crossbows; many carried provisions in baskets or bundles while others escorted the cannons on wooden carts.

Cortés’ army entered the city on the flower-covered causeway (Iztapalapa) associated with the god Quetzalcoatl. Cortés was amicably received by Moctezuma. The captive woman Malinalli Tenépal, also known as La Malinche or Doña Marina, translated from Nahuatl to Chontal Maya; the Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar translated from Chontal Maya to Spanish.

Moctezuma was soon taken hostage on November 14, 1519, as a safety measure by the vastly outnumbered Spanish. According to all eyewitness accounts, Moctezuma initially refused to leave his palace but after a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish captains, and assurances from La Malinche, he agreed to move to the Axayáctal palace with his retinue. The first captain assigned to guard him was Pedro de Alvarado. Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish. The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers to prevent any rescue attempt.

Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spaniards

It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated so readily with the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power. It was clear from the beginning that he was ambivalent about who Cortés and his men were: gods, descendants of a god, ambassadors from a greater king, or just barbaric invaders. From the perspective of the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on the Spaniards or to wait for the end of the agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not carry out either of these actions even though high-ranking military leaders such as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to do so.

With Moctezuma’s captive, Cortés did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked, although some of his captains had such concerns. He also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not as powerful as Cortés imagined. Being appointed to and maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the ability to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders issued by Cortés, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to the Spaniards, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him.

Cortés and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 800 soldiers, twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Velázquez felt that Cortés had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortés’s misconduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable winds, though and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narváez’s troops landed at San Juan de Ulúa on the Mexican coast around April 20, 1520.

After Cortés became aware of their arrival, he brought a small force of about two hundred and forty to Narváez’s camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Cortés attacked Narváez’s camp late at night. His men wounded Narváez and took him as a hostage quickly. Evidence suggests that the two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narváez was not expecting an attack. Cortés had also won over Narváez’s captains with promises of vast wealth in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortés’s forces.

Massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl

During Cortés’s absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in command in Tenochtitlan with 120 soldiers.

At this time, the Aztecs began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca, otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipotent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the dry season so that the god would fill dry streambeds and cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the consent of Cortés to hold the festival and again confirmed permission with Alvarado.

Alvarado agreed to allow the festival on the condition that there would be no human sacrifice but the Toxcatl festival had featured human sacrifice as the main part of its climactic rituals. The sacrifice involved the killing of a young man who had been impersonating the god Toxcatl deity for a full year. Thus, prohibiting human sacrifice during this festival was an untenable proposition for the Aztecs.

Before the festival, Alvarado encountered a group of women building a statue of Huitzilopochtli, and the image unsettled him, and he became suspicious about the eventuality of human sacrifice. He tortured priests and nobles and discovered that the Aztecs were planning a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he sequestered Moctezuma and increased the guards around the tlatoani.

By the day of the festival, the Aztecs had gathered on the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The euphoric dancing as well as the accompanying flute and drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors, and priests.

Alvarado, the conquistadors, and the Tlaxcalans retreated to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their cannons, crossbows, and arquebuses into the gathering crowd. The Aztec revolt became more widespread as a result. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them.

The massacre was the result of resolutely turning all the Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining Moctezuma’s authority.

Aztec revolt

When it became more clear what was happening to the Aztecs outside the Temple, the alarm was sounded. Aztec warriors came running, fired darts, and launched spears at the Spanish forces. This may have been because their military infrastructure was severely damaged after the attack on the festival, as the most elite seasoned warriors were killed.

Alvarado sent for word to Cortés of the events, and Cortés hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers. Cortés also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the journey. Cortés entered the palace unscathed, although the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent people were slaughtered because they were suspected of helping them. The roads were shut and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier who was not killed was wounded.

Cortés failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. Thus, the military gains of the attack also had a serious political cost for Cortés.

Cortés attempted to parley with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However, the Aztecs refused. The Spanish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his people as he attempted to speak with them. The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma had been murdered by the Spanish. Two other local rulers were found strangled as well. Moctezuma’s younger brother Cuitláhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then, was chosen as the Tlatoani.

La Noche Triste and the Spanish flight to Tlaxcala

This Aztec victory is still remembered as “La Noche Triste,” The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say that Cortés wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his troops at the hands of the Aztecs.

Though a flight from the city would make Cortés appear weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortés and his men were in the center of the city, and would most likely have to fight their way out no matter what direction they took. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, so a path directly east would have been most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortés’s people and supplies, which he was unable to procure in his position.

Thus, Cortés had to choose among three land routes: north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Ixtlapalapan, two towns that would not welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortés decided on the west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people.

Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish. On that “Sad Night,” July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace first with their indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses’ hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals. The Spanish forces were able to pass through the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco.

However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish off. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and arquebuses, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty.

When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous “leap of Alvarado” using a spear to get to the other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards succeeding in reaching the mainland, while the remaining ones died in battle or were captured and later sacrificed on Aztec altars. After crossing over the bridge, the surviving Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spanish had been killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows were lost. The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals.

To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the entire trip, because Cortés took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortés’s forces were not very heavy. As Cortés arrived in more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were more forceful.

Battle of Otumba

Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs had underestimated the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because all they had seen was the horses traveling on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains.

Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat when he spotted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful feather costume, and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander. The Spanish suffered heavy losses, but were eventually victorious over the Aztecs, who then retreated.

When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narváez’s troops. Cortés claimed only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1150 Spaniards dead, though this figure was most likely more than the total number of Spanish. Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés’ chaplain, estimated 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded.

The women survivors included Cortés’s translator and lover La Malinche, María Estrada, and two of Moctezuma’s daughters who had been given to Cortés, including the emperor’s favorite and reportedly most beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doña Isabel Moctezuma). A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second “María” named in his will.

Shifting alliances

Cuitláhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately following Moctezuma’s death. It was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitláhuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for many tributaries. The Aztec empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based either on their own interests or fear of punishment.

It was necessary for Cortés to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards at this point or turned them over to the Aztecs. In fact, the Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if they would do just that. The Tlaxcalan leaders rebuffed the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to continue their friendship with Cortés.

Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortés for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlaxcalans after the fall of Tenochtitlan.

Cortés needed to gain other new allies as well. If the Spaniards were able to prove they could protect their new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, changing sides would not be too difficult for other tributaries. After Cortés’s forces managed to defeat the smaller armies of some Aztec tributary states, Tepeyac, and later, Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac were easily won over. Cortés also used political maneuvering to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. In addition, Cortés replaced kings with those who he knew would be loyal to him. Cortés now controlled many major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortés’s forces while weakening the Aztecs.

Though the largest group of indigenous allies were Tlaxcalans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua and Tepanecs were all important allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated by the Aztecs.

Even the former Triple Alliance member, city of Tetzcoco (or Texcoco) became a Spanish ally. As the rebellion attempt led by the Tetzcocan Tlatoani, Cacamatzin in times of Moctezuma’s reclusion was conjured by the Spanish, Cortés named one of Cacamatzin’s brothers as new tlatoani. He was Ixtlilxóchitl II, who had disagreed with his brother and always proved friendly to the Spanish. Later, Cortés also occupied the city as base for the construction of brigantines. However, one faction of Tetzcocan warriors remained loyal to the Aztecs.

Cortés had to put down internal struggles among the Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than to go home, or at the very least to return to Vera Cruz and wait for reinforcements. Cortés hurriedly quashed this faction, determined to finish what he had started. Not only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself by defying his superior Velázquez. He knew that in defeat he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in success he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the siege of Mexico. In this Cortés showed skill at exploiting the divisions within and between the Aztec states while hiding those of his own troops.

Smallpox reduces the local population

While Cortés was rebuilding his alliances and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The disease was probably carried by a Spanish slave from Narváez’s forces, who had been abandoned in the capital during the Spanish flight. Smallpox played a crucial role in the Spanish success during the Siege of Tenochtitlan from 1519–1521, a fact not mentioned in some historical accounts. The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late October 1520. The epidemic lasted sixty days, ending by early December.

It was at this event where firsthand accounts were recorded in the Florentine Codex concerning the adverse effects of the smallpox epidemic of the Aztecs, which stated, “many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was well established that nothing could halt it”. The smallpox epidemic caused not only infection to the Mexica peoples, but it weakened able bodied people who could no longer grow and harvest their crops, which in turn led to mass famine and death from malnutrition. While the population of Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco that was formerly controlled by the Aztecs but now occupied by the Spanish.

Reproduction and population growth declined since people of child bearing age either had to fight off the Spanish invasion or died due to famine, malnutrition or other diseases. Diseases like smallpox could travel great distances and spread throughout large populations, which was the case with the Aztecs having lost approximately 50% of its population from smallpox and other diseases. The disease killed an estimated forty percent of the native population in the area within a year. The Aztecs codices give ample depictions of the disease’s progression. It was known to them as the huey ahuizotl (great rash).

Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling for eighty days. Though the disease drastically decreased the numbers of warriors on both sides, it had more dire consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs, as they were much harder hit by the smallpox than the Spanish leaders, who were largely resistant to the disease.

Aztecs regroup

It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action against the Spanish and their allies after they fled the city. One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state of disorder: the smallpox disease ravaged the population, killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new king, Cuauhtémoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on the throne in February 1521. The people were in the process of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged city. It is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the Spanish were gone for good.

Staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would allow them the largest possible army that would be close to its supplies, while affording them the mobility provided by the surrounding lake. Any Spanish assault would have to come through the causeways, where the Aztecs could easily attack them.

Cortés plans and prepares

Cortés’s overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs within their capital. Cortés intended to do that primarily by increasing his power and mobility on the lake, while protecting “his flanks while they marched up the causeway”, previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered the construction of thirteen sloops (brigantines) in Tlaxcala, by his master shipbuilder, Martín López. Cortés continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from ships arriving at Vera Cruz, one ship from Spain loaded with “arms and powder”, and two ships intended for Narváez. Cortés also received one hundred and fifty soldiers and twenty horses from the abandoned Panuco river settlement.

Cortés then decided to move his army to Tetzcoco, where he could assemble and launch the sloops in the creeks flowing into Lake Texcoco. With his main headquarters in Tetzcoco, he could stop his forces from being spread too thin around the lake, and there he could contact them where they needed. Xicotencatl the Elder provided Cortés with ten thousand plus Tlaxcalan warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle. Cortés departed Tlaxcala on the day after Christmas 1520. When his force arrived at the outskirts of Tetzcoco, he was met by seven chieftains stating their leader Coanacotzin begs “for your friendship”. Cortés quickly replaced that leader with the son of Nezahualpilli, baptized as Don Hernando Cortés.

After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortés sent eight Mexican prisoners to Cuauhtemoc stating, “all the towns in the neighbourhood were now on our side, as well as the Tlaxcalans”. Cortés intended to blockade Mexico and then destroy it. Once Martin Lopez and Chichimecatecle brought the logs and planks to Texcoco, the sloops were built quickly.:321–25 Cuauhtemoc’s forces were defeated four times in March 1521, around Chalco and Huaxtepec, and Cortés received another ship load of arms and men from the Emperor.

On 6 April 1521, Cortés met with the Caciques around Chalco, and announced he would “bring peace” and blockade Mexico. He wanted all of their warriors ready the next day when he put thirteen launches into the lake. He was then joined at Chimaluacan by twenty thousand warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huexotzingo, and Tlascala.:333 Cortés fought a major engagement with seventeen thousand Guatemoc warriors at Xochimilco, before continuing his march northwestward.:340–47 Cortés found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco, and Cuauhitlan deserted.

Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by his Captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés was joined by many more men from Castile.:349 Cortés then discovered a plot aimed at his murder, for which he had the main conspirator, Antonio de Villafana, hanged. Thereafter, Cortés had a personal guard of six soldiers, under the command of Antonio de Quiñones.:350–51 The Spaniards also held their third auctioning of branded slaves, Mexican allies captured by Cortés, “who had revolted after giving their obedience to His Majesty”.

Cortés had 84 horsemen, 194 arbalesters and arquebusiers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He stationed 25 men on every launch, 12 oarsmen, 12 crossbowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each launch had rigging, sails, oars, and spare oars. Additionally, Cortés had 20,000 warriors from Tlascala, Huexotzinco, and Cholula. The Tlascalans were led by Xicotencatl II and Chichimecatecle. Cortés was ready to start the blockade of Mexico after Corpus Christi (feast).

Cortés put Alvarado in command of 30 horsemen, 18 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, and sent him, accompanied by his brother Jorge de Alvarado, Gutierrez de Badajoz, and Andrés de Monjaraz, to secure Tacuba. Cristóbal de Olid took 30 horsemen, 20 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 175 foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, accompanied by Andrés de Tapia, Francisco Verdugo, and Francisco de Lugo, and secured Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval took 24 horsemen, 14 arquebusiers and arbalesters, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco and Huexotzinco, accompanied by Luis Marin and Pedro de Ircio, to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortés commanded the 13 launches.:356 Cortés’ forces took up these positions on May 22.

The first battles

The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched first towards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their water supply.:359 There were springs there that supplied much of the city’s water by aqueduct; the rest of the city’s water was brought in by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan. The Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish and halt this assault on the capital with a determined and hard fought land and naval counterattack.

Cortés faced “more than a thousand canoes” after he launched his thirteen launches from Texcoco. Yet a “favorable breeze sprang up”, enabling him to overturn many canoes and kill or capture many. After winning the First Battle on the Lake, Cortés camped with Olid’s forces.

The Aztec canoe fleets worked well for attacking the Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortés decided to make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines could help defend his forces from both sides. He then distributed the launches amongst his attacking forces, four to Alvarado, six for Olid, and two to Sandoval on the Tepeaquilla causeway. After this move, the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish brigantines, and “the fighting went very much in our favour”, according to Díaz.

With his brigantines, Cortés could also send forces and supplies to areas he previously could not, which put a kink in Cuauhtémoc’s plan. To make it more difficult for the Spanish ships to aid the Spanish soldier’s advance along the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas of the lakes, into which they hoped the Spaniards would stumble, and fixed concealed stakes into the lake bottom to impale the launches. The Spanish horses were also ineffective on the causeways.

Cortés was forced to adapt his plans again, as his initial land campaigns were ineffective. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to occupy the abandoned bridges and barricades as soon as the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Cortés had his forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their positions.:364–366 Cortés also sent orders to “never on any account to leave a gap unblocked, and that all the horsemen were to sleep on the causeway with their horses saddled and bridled all night long”. This allowed the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the city.

The Spaniards prevented food and water from reaching Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited the supplies reaching the city from the nine surrounding towns via canoe, by sending out two of their launches on nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs were successful in setting an ambush with thirty of their pirogues in an area in which they had placed impaling stakes. They captured two Spanish launches, killing Captain de Portilla and Pedro Barba.

The Spanish advance closer

After capturing two chieftains, Cortés learned of another Aztec plot to ambush his launches with forty pirogues. Cortés then organized a counter-ambush with six of his launches, which was successful, “killing many warriors and taking many prisoners.” Afterwards, the Aztec “did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in food and water as openly as before.” Lakeside towns, including Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic made peace with the Spaniards. The fighting in Tenochtitlan was described by the American historian Charles Robinson as “desperate” as both sides battled one another in the streets in a ferocious battle where no quarter was given nor asked for.

Guatemoc then attacked all three Spanish camps simultaneously with his entire army on the feast day of St. John. On the Tacuba Causeway across Lake Texcoco connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland along a street now known as Puente de Alvarado (Alvarado’s Bridge) in Mexico City, Pedro de Alvarado made a mad cavalry charge across a gap in the Causeway. As Alvardo and his cavalry emerged on the other side of the gap with the infantry behind, Aztec canoes filled the gap. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded along with eight men in his camp. Alvarado escaped from the ambush, but five of his men were captured and taken off to the Great Temple to be sacrificed. Much to their horror, the Spanish from their positions could see their captured comrades being sacrificed on the Great Pyramid, which increased their hatred of the Aztecs. At the end of each day, the Spanish gave a prayer: “Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed.”

Cortés then decided to push forward a simultaneous attack towards the Mexican market square. However, he neglected to fill in a channel as he advanced, and when the Aztec counter-attacked, Cortés was wounded and almost captured. Cristóbal de Olea and Cristóbal de Guzmán gave their lives for Cortés, and sixty-five Spanish soldiers were captured alive. Guatemoc then had five of their heads thrown at Alvarado’s camp, four thrown at Cortés’ camp, six thrown at Sandoval’s camp, while ten more were sacrificed to the Huichilobos and Texcatlipoca idols.

Díaz relates, “…the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded again,…we saw our comrades who had been captured in Cortés’ defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacrificed…cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating hearts which they offered to the idols…the Indian butchers…cut off their arms and legs…then they ate their flesh with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes…throwing their trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents and snakes.” Guatemoc then “sent the hands and feet of our soldiers, and the skin of their faces…to all the towns of our allies…” The Aztec sacrificed a batch of Spanish prisoners each night for ten nights. The Aztec cast off the cooked limbs of their prisoners to the Tlaxcalans, shouting: “Eat the flesh of these tueles (“Gods”-a reference to the early belief that Spanish were gods) and of your brothers because we are sated with it”.

The Aztec continued to attack the Spaniards on the causeways, “day and night”. The Spanish allies in the cities surrounding the lake lost many lives or “went home wounded”, and “half their canoes were destroyed”. Yet, “they did not help the Aztec any more, for they loathed them.” Yet, of the 24,000 allies, only 200 remained in the three Spanish camps, the rest deciding to return home. Ahuaxpitzactzin (later baptized as Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don Fernando, remained in Cortés’ camp with forty relatives and friends. The Huexotzinco Cacique remained in Sandoval’s camp with fifty men. Alvarado’s camp had Chichimecatecle, the two sons of Lorenzo de Vargas, and eighty Tlascalans. To maintain the advance, Cortés razed every neighborhood he captured, using the rubble to fill up canals and gaps in the causeways to allow his infantry and cavalry to advance in formation, a fighting tactic that favored the Spanish instead of engaging in hand to hand street fighting, which favored the Aztec.

Cortés then concentrated on letting the Aztec “eat up all the provisions they have” and drink brackish water. The Spaniards gradually advanced along the causeways, though without allies. Their launches had freedom of the lake, after devising a method for breaking the impaling stakes the Aztec had placed for them. After twelve days of this, the Spanish allies realized the prophesy by the Aztec idols, that the Spaniards would be dead in ten days was false. Two thousand warriors returned from Texcoco, as did many Tlascan warriors under Tepaneca from Topeyanco, and those from Huexotzingo and Cholula.

Guatemoc then enlisted his allies in Matlazingo, Malinalco, and Tulapa, in attacking the Spaniards from the rear. However, Cortés sent Andrés de Tapia, with 20 horsemen and 100 soldiers, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, with 20 horsemen and 80 soldiers, to help his allies attack this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo chieftains as prisoners.

As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their stranglehold on Tenochtitlan tightened, and famine began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because of the occupied causeways. Cortés also had the advantage of fighting a mostly defensive battle. Though Cuauhtémoc organized a large-scale attack on Alvarado’s forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had little aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal tributaries had difficulty sending forces, because it would leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.

Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a “snowball effect,” in that if one tributary left, others might follow. Thus, they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were intercepted, and even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked. The situation inside the city was desperate: because of the famine and the smallpox there were already thousands of victims, women offered to the gods even their children’ clothes, so most children were stark naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, brackish water because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery. The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.

The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did, preventing Cortés’s forces from being entirely victorious. However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz, and, somewhat renewed, finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs’ last stand

Cortés then ordered a simultaneous advance of all three camps towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. Alvarado’s company made it there first, and Gutierrez de Badajoz advanced to the top of the Huichilcbos cue, setting it afire and planting their Spanish banners. Cortés’ and Sandoval’s men were able to join them there after four more days of fighting.

The Spanish forces and their allies advanced into the city. Despite inflicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could not halt the Spanish advance. While the fighting in the city raged, the Aztecs cut out and ate the hearts of 70 Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli. By August, many of the native inhabitants had fled Tlatelolco. Cortés sent emissaries to negotiate with the Tlatelolcas to join his side, but the Tlatelolcas remained loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans waged a merciless campaign against the Aztecs who had long oppressed them as for hundreds of years the Tlaxcalans had been forced to hand over an annual quota of young men and women to be sacrificed and eaten at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and now the Tlaxcalans saw their chance for revenge. The American historian Charles Robinson wrote: “Centuries of hate and the basic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in violence that appalled Cortés himself”. In letter to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Cortés wrote:

“We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could…I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed (by the Tlaxcalans) that day”.

Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still practiced the traditional ceremonies and customs. Tlapaltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be outfitted to wear the quetzal owl costume. He was supplied with darts sacred to Huitzilopochtli, which came with wooden tips and flint tops. When he came, the Spanish soldiers appeared scared and intimidated. They chased the owl-warrior, but he was neither captured nor killed. The Aztecs took this as a good sign, but they could fight no more, and after discussions with the nobles, Cuauhtémoc began talks with the Spanish.

After several failed peace overtures to Guatemoc, Cortés ordered Sandoval to attack that part of the city in which Guatemoc had retreated. As hundreds of canoes filled the lake fleeing the doomed city, Cortés sent his brigantines out to intercept them. Guatemoc attempted to flee with his property, gold, jewels, and family in fifty pirogues, but was soon captured by Sandoval’s launches, and brought before Cortés.

The surrender

The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surrendered on 13 August 1521, Julian Date.:404 Cortés demanded the return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under torture, by burning their feet with oil, Cuauhtémoc and the lord of Tacuba, confessed to dumping his gold and jewels into the lake. Yet, little gold remained, as earlier, a fifth had been sent to Spain and another kept by Cortés. “In the end…the remaining gold all fell to the King’s officials.”

Cuauhtémoc was taken hostage the same day and remained the titular leader of Tenochtitlan, under the control of Cortés, until he was hanged for treason in 1525 while accompanying a Spanish expedition to Guatemala.

Remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish forces, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Spanish and Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days.

Almost all of the nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children. It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine with any exactitude the number of people killed during the siege. As many as 240,000 Aztecs are estimated to have died, according to the Florentine Codex, during the eighty days. This estimate is greater, however, than some estimates of the entire population (60,000–300,000) even before the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Spanish observers estimated that approximately 100,000 inhabitants of the city died from all causes.

Although some reports put the number as low as forty, the Spanish probably lost around 100 soldiers in the siege, while thousands of Tlaxcalans perished. It is estimated that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during the two-year campaign—from Vera Cruz to Tenochtitlan. (Thomas, pp. 528–29) The remaining Spanish forces consisted of 800–900 Spaniards, eighty horses, sixteen pieces of artillery, and Cortés’s thirteen brigantines. Other sources estimate that around 860 Spanish soldiers and 20.000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed during all the battles in this region from 1519–1521.

It is well accepted that Cortés’ indigenous allies, which may have numbered as many as 200,000 over the three-year period of the conquest, were indispensable to his success.

After the conquest

Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days, causing the inhabitants utter famine, directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city, and began its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.

Tenochtitlan’s main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. This stone disc is 3.25 meters in diameter (or 10.5 ft). These finds are held at the Templo Mayor Museum.

The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco. This resulted in the ruins now resting at an angle instead of horizontally.

Mexico City’s Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan’s original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters in diameter and weighs over 20 tons. It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was made around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and a prophecy for the future.

In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five metres below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults and a complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.

After the destruction of Tenochtitlan, the Templo Mayor, like most of the rest of the city, was taken apart and covered over by the new Spanish colonial city. The Temple’s exact location was forgotten, although by the 20th-century scholars had a good idea where to look for it. This was based on the archeological work done at the end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th.

Leopoldo Batres did some excavation work at the end of the 19th century under the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral because at this time, the temple was thought to be there. In the first decades of the 20th century, Manuel Gamio found part of the southwest corner of the temple and his finds were put on public display.

However, it did not generate great public interest in excavating further because the zone was an upper-class residential area. In 1933, Emilio Cuevas found part of a staircase and beam. In 1948, Hugo Moedano and Elma Estrada Balmori excavated a platform containing serpent heads and offerings. In 1966, Eduardo Contreras and Jorge Angula excavated a chest containing offerings that was first explored by Gamio.

The push to fully excavate the site did not come until late in the 20th century.

On 21 February 1978, workers for the electric company were digging at a place in the city then popularly known as the “island of the dogs”. It was so named because it was slightly elevated over the rest of the neighborhood, and when that was flooded, street dogs would congregate there. Just over two meters down, the diggers struck a pre-Hispanic monolith. This stone turned out to be a huge disk of over 3.25 meters (10.7 feet) in diameter, 30 centimeters (11.8 inches) thick and weighing 8.5 metric tons (8.4 long tons; 9.4 short tons). The relief on the stone was later determined to be Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli’s sister, dating to the end of the 15th century.

From 1978 to 1982, specialists directed by archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma worked on the project to excavate the Temple. Initial excavations found that many of the artifacts were in good enough condition to study. Efforts coalesced into the Templo Mayor Project, which was authorized by presidential decree.

To excavate, 13 buildings in this area had to be demolished. Nine of these were built in the 1930s and four dated from the 19th century, and had preserved colonial elements. During excavations, more than 7,000 objects were found, mostly offerings including effigies, clay pots in the image of Tlaloc, skeletons of turtles, frogs, crocodiles, and fish, snail shells, coral, some gold, alabaster, Mixtec figurines, ceramic urns from Veracruz, masks from what is now Guerrero state, copper rattles, decorated skulls and knives of obsidian and flint. These objects are housed in the Templo Mayor Museum. This museum is the result of the work done since the early 1980s to rescue, preserve and research the Templo Mayor, its Sacred Precinct and all objects associated with it. The museum exists to make all of the finds available to the public.

The excavated site consists of two parts: the temple itself, exposed and labeled to show its various stages of development, along with some other associated buildings, and the museum, built to house the smaller and more fragile objects.

Mexican pyramids were typically expanded by building over prior ones, using the bulk of the former as a base for the latter, as later rulers sought to expand the temple to reflect the growing greatness of the city of Tenochtitlan. Therefore, digging down through this pyramid takes us back in time. The first temple was begun by the Aztecs the year after they founded the city, and the pyramid was rebuilt six times. All seven stages of the Templo Mayor, except the first, have been excavated and assigned to the reigns of the emperors who were responsible for them.

Construction of the first Templo Mayor began sometime after 1325. This first pyramid is only known through historical records, because the high water table of the old lakebed prevents excavation. According to these records, the first pyramid was built with earth and perishable wood, which may not have survived to the present time.

The second temple was built during the reigns of Acamapichtli, Huitzilihuitl and Chimalpopoca between 1375 and 1427. The upper part of this temple has been excavated, exposing two stone shrines covered in stucco on the north side. A chacmool was uncovered as well. On the south side, there is a sacrificial stone called a “téchcatl” and a sculpted face.

The third temple was built between 1427 and 1440 during the reign of Itzcoatl. A staircase with eight stone standard-bearers is from this stage bearing the glyph with the year Four-Reed (1431) These standard bearers act as “divine warriors” guarding the access to the upper shrines.

The fourth temple was constructed between 1440 and 1481 during the reigns of Moctezuma I and Axayacatl. This stage is considered to have the richest of the architectural decorations as well as sculptures. Most offerings from the excavations are from this time. The great platform was decorated with serpents and braziers, some of which are in the form of monkeys and some in the form of Tlaloc. At this time, the stairway to the shrine of Tlaloc was defined by a pair of undulating serpents and in the middle of this shrine was a small altar defined by a pair of sculpted frogs. The circular monolith of Coyolxauhqui also dates from this time.

The fifth temple (1481–1486) is dated during the short reign of Tizoc. During these five years, the platform was recovered in stucco and the ceremonial plaza was paved.

The sixth temple was built during the reign of Ahuizotl. He finished some of the updates made by Tizoc and made his own; as shown on the carvings of the “commemoration stone of the huei teocalli”, showing the two tlatoqueh celebrating the opening of the temple during the last day of the month Panquetzaliztli dedicated to Huitzilopochtli; day 7 acatl of the year 8 acatl (Dec 19th, 1487). The Sacred Precinct was walled off and this wall was decorated with serpent heads. He built three shrines and the House of the Eagle Warriors.

The seventh and last temple is what Hernán Cortés and his men saw when they arrived to Tenochtitlan in 1519. Very little of this layer remains because of the destruction the Spaniards wrought when they conquered the city. Only a platform to the north and a section of paving in the courtyard on the south side can still be seen.

Most of what is known about this temple is based on the historical record. It was at the time the largest and most important active ceremonial center. Fray Bernardino de Sahagún reported that the Sacred Precinct had 78 buildings; the Templo Mayor towered above all of them.

The pyramid was composed of four sloped terraces with a passage between each level, topped by a great platform that measured approximately 80 by 100 meters (262 by 328 feet). It had two stairways to access the two shrines on the top platform. One was dedicated to Tlaloc, the god of water on the left side (as you face the structure), and one to Huitzilopochtli, deity of war and of the sun, on the right side. The two temples were approximately 60 meters (200 feet) in height, and each had large braziers where the sacred fires continuously burned. The entrance of each temple had statues of robust and seated men which supported the standard-bearers and banners of handmade bark paper. Each stairway was defined by balustrades flanking the stairs terminating in menacing serpent heads at the base. These stairways were used only by the priests and sacrificial victims. The entire building was originally covered with stucco and polychrome paint.

The deities were housed inside the temple, shielded from the outside by curtains. The idol of Huitzilopochtli was modeled from amaranth seeds held together with honey and human blood. Inside of him were bags containing jade, bones and amulets to give life to the god. This figure was constructed annually and it was richly dressed and fitted with a mask of gold for his festival held during the Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli. At the end of the festival, the image was broken apart and shared among the populace to be eaten.

In his description of the city, Cortés records that he and the other Spaniards were impressed by the number and magnificence of the temples constructed in Tenochtitlan, but that was tempered by this disdain for their beliefs and human sacrifice.

On 14 November 1519, Cortes seized the emperor Moctezuma II and ordered the destruction of all the religious relics of the Aztecs. He ordered a Catholic cross placed on the Templo Mayor. While Cortes left for Veracruz to confront Spaniards looking to arrest him, Pedro de Alvarado learned of a plan to attack the Spaniards, and staged a pre-emptive attack on the Aztecs in the Sacred Precinct while they celebrated a religious festival. Unarmed and trapped within the walls of the Sacred Precinct, an estimated 8,000–10,000 Aztec nobles were killed. When word of the massacre spread throughout the city, the people turned on the Spaniards, killing seven, wounding many, and driving the rest back to their quarters. The Spaniards were trapped between two Aztec forces and 68 were captured alive. Ten of these Spanish captives were immediately sacrificed at the Temple and their severed heads were thrown back to the Spaniards. The others were sacrificed at the Great Temple that night, which could be seen from the Spanish camps. The sacrificed Spaniards were flayed and their faces — with beards attached — were tanned and sent to allied towns, both to solicit assistance and to warn against betraying the alliance.

After the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521, the lands controlled by the Aztecs became part of the Spanish empire. All the temples, including the Templo Mayor, were sacked, taking all objects of gold and other precious materials. Cortés, who had ordered the destruction of the existing capital, had a Mediterranean-style city built on the site. Essential elements of the old imperial center, including the Templo Mayor, were buried under similarly key features of the new Spanish city in what is now the historical downtown of the Mexico City. The Templo Mayor and Sacred Precinct were demolished and a Spanish church, later the main cathedral, was built on the western half of the precinct.

According to tradition, the Templo Mayor is located on the exact spot where the god Huitzilopochtli gave the Mexica people his sign that they had reached the promised land: an eagle on a nopal cactus with a snake in its mouth.

The Templo Mayor was partially a symbolic representation of the Hill of Coatepec, where according to Mexica myth, Huitzilopochtli was born. Huitzilopochtli emerged from his mother Coatlicue fully grown and fully armed to battle his sister Coyolxauhqui and her brothers the Centzon Huitznahua who intended to kill him and their mother. Huitzilopochtli was victorious, slaying and dismembering his sister. Her body was then thrown to the bottom of the hill. As the southern half of the Great Temple represented Coatepec (on the side dedicated to Huitzilopochtli), the great stone disk with Coyolxauhqui’s dismembered body was found at the foot of this side of the temple. The northern half represented Tonacatepetl, the mountain home of Tlaloc.

The sacred ballcourt and skull rack were located at the foot of the stairs of the twin temples, to mimic, like the stone disk, where Huitzilopochtli was said to have placed the goddess’ severed head. These locations served as a place for the reenactment of the mythical conflict.

The various levels of the Temple also represent the cosmology of the Aztec world. First of all, it is aligned with the cardinal directions with gates that connect to roads leading in these directions. This indicates the place where the plane of the world that humans live in intersects the thirteen levels of the heavens, called Topan and the nine levels of the underworld, called Mictlan.

Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, in his essay “Symbolism of the Templo Mayor,” posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the total vision that the Mexica had of the universe (cosmovision). He states that the “principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan.” Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where “all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect.” Said myth is the birth and struggle between Huitzilopochtli and Coyolxauhqui.

The Sacred Precinct of the Templo Mayor encompassed an area of almost 4,000 square meters (43,000 square feet) and it was surrounded by a wall called the “coatepantli” (serpent wall). Among the most important buildings were the ballcourt, the Calmecac (area for priests), and the temples dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca and the sun. The Templo Mayor itself delineated the eastern side of the Sacred Precinct.

On the sides of the Templo Mayor, archeologists have excavated a number of palatial rooms and conjoining structures. One of the best preserved and most important is the Palace (or House) of the Eagle Warriors. This area dates back to the fourth stage of the temple, around 1469. It was excavated in 1981 and 1982 by José Francisco Hinojosa. It is a large L-shaped room with staircases decorated with sculptures of eagle heads. To enter this main room, one had to pass through an entrance guarded by two large sculpted representations of these warriors. The Eagle Warriors were a privileged class who were dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli, and dressed to look like eagles. Adjoining this palace is the temple for these warriors—also known as the Red Temple. This temple shows clear Teotihuacan influence in its paintings (mostly in red) and the design of its altar. Almost all the interior walls of the House of the Eagles are decorated with beautiful paintings and contain long benches, which are also painted. These benches are composed of two panels. The upper one is a frieze with undulating serpents in bas-relief. The lower panel shows processions of armed warriors converging on a zacatapayolli, a grass ball into which the Mexica stuck bloody lancets during the ritual of autosacrifice. This palace specifically imitates much of the style of the Burnt Palace, located in the ruins of Tula. A number of important artifacts have been found in this area, the most important of which are two nearly identical large ceramic sculptures of Mictlantecuhtl, the god of death. Despite being found in fragile pieces, they were both reconstructed and are on display at the on-site museum.

Another conjoining area was dedicated to the Ocelot Warriors. Their temple, dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca, lies under the current Museo de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público to the south of the Templo Mayor.

The Calmecac was a residence hall for priests and a school for future priests, administrators and politicians, where they studied theology, literature, history and astronomy. Its exact location is on one side of what is now Donceles Street. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl was located to the west of the Templo Mayor. It is said that during the equinox, the sun rose between the shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc and shone directly on this temple. Due to the god’s serpentine nature, the temple had a circular base instead of a rectangular one.

The ball field, called the tlachtli or teutlachtli, was similar to many sacred ball fields in Mesoamerica. Games were played barefoot, and players used their hips to move a heavy ball to stone rings. The field was located west of the Templo Mayor, near the twin staircases and oriented east-west. Next to this ball field was the “huey tzompanti” where the skulls of sacrifice victims were kept after being covered in stucco and decorated.

The Temple of the Sun was located west of the Templo Mayor also and its remains lie under the Metropolitan Cathedral. The project to shore up the cathedral at the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st brought to light a number of artifacts.

Most of the objects found in the Templo Mayor were offerings. Although many are of Mexica design, there are also abundant items from other peoples, brought in as tribute or through trade. Sculptures, flint knives, vessels, beads and other sumptuary ornaments—as well as minerals, plants and animals of all types, and the remains of human sacrifice—were among the items deposited in offerings. All of these fulfilled a specific function within the offering, depending on the symbolism of each object. In excavations at the Templo Mayor, different types of offerings have been found and have been grouped by researchers in terms of Time (the period in which the offering was deposited); Space (the location of the offering within the structure); Container (type and dimensions of the receptacle containing the objects); internal distribution (placement of objects within the offering) and value of the items. The offerings were usually contained in cavities, in stone urns, and in boxes made of slabs. These are found under floors; in platforms, architectural bodies, stairways and in temples. These offerings were placed accompanied by complex rituals following set temporal, spatial and symbolic patterns, depending on the intention of the offering.

The oldest Mexica objects, located in the second temple, are two urns which contain the remains of incinerated bones; one of the urns was made of obsidian and the other of alabaster. A small silver mask and a gold bell were found inside one urn, and second gold bell and two green stone beads were placed in the other.

Images of the gods Huehueteotl-Xiuhtecuhtli, together with Tlaloc, presided over most of the offerings found in the Templo Mayor. Representing fire and water respectively, this pair of deities probably symbolized the concept of “burning water,” a metaphor for warfare.

Another theme exhibited in this hall is autosacrifice, a ritual that was conducted in private as a personal act of communication with the gods. Widespread throughout the entire population, this practice was performed by perforating certain fleshy parts of the body—such as the earlobes, lips, tongue, chest, calves, et cetera—with obsidian blades, agave needles or bone perforators. Once the implement was covered with blood, it was inserted in straw balls called Zacatapayoli. The entirety was probably placed in ceremonial boxes—tepetlacalli—as an offering to the gods. Objects associated with human sacrifice are the “face blades” or knives decorated with eyes and teeth, as well as skull masks. Other ceremonial items include musical instruments, jewelry, and braziers for the burning of copal.

The museum of the Templo Mayor was built in 1987 to house the Templo Mayor Project and its finds—a project which continues work to this day. In 1991, the Urban Archeology Program was incorporated as part of the Templo Mayor Project whose mission is to excavate the oldest area of the city, around the main plaza. The museum building was built by architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, who envisioned a discreet structure that would blend in with the colonial surroundings. The museum has four floors, three of which are for permanent exhibitions and the fourth houses offices for the director, museum administration and research staff. Other departments are located in the basement, where there is also an auditorium.

The museum has eight main exhibition halls, called “salas”, each dedicated to a different theme. Room 1 is dedicated to the goddesses Coatlicue and Coyalxauhqui, mother and sister to Huitzlipochtli, respectively. Here are displayed the first finds associated with the temple, from the first tentative finds in the 19th century to the discovery of the huge stone disk of Coyolxauhqui, which initiated the Templo Mayor Project.

Room 2 is dedicated to the concepts of ritual and sacrifice in Tenochtitlan. This room contains urns where dignitaries where interred, funerary offerings, as well as objects associated with self and human sacrifice—such as musical instruments, knives and skulls.

Room 3 demonstrates the economics of the Aztec empire in the form of tribute and trade, with examples of finished products and raw materials from many parts of Mesoamerica. Sala 4 is dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli. His shrine at the temple was the most important and largest. This room contains various images of him as well as offerings. Also located here are the two large ceramic statues of the god Mictlantecuhtli which were found in the House of the Eagle Warriors who were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli.

Room 5 is dedicated to Tlaloc, the other principal deity of the Aztecs and one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. This room contains various images of the god usually worked in green or volcanic stone or in ceramic. The most prized work is a large pot with the god’s face in high relief that still preserves much of the original blue paint. Room 6 is dedicated to the flora and fauna of Mesoamerica at this time, as most contained divine aspects for the Aztecs. Also many of the offerings found at the Templo Mayor were or were made from various plants and animals. Related to Room 6, Room 7 contains exhibits of the agricultural technology of the time, especially in the growing of corn and the construction of chinampas, the so-called “floating gardens”. The last room is Room 8, which is dedicated to the archeology and history of the site.

The archeological site lies just to the northeast of the Zocalo, or main plaza of Mexico City, just behind the Cathedral, in the block between Seminario and Justo Sierra streets (Zocalo metro station, Line 2).

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

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The municipaplity of Álvaro Obregón is located in the west of Mexico City, and has a land surface of 96.17 km², with an elongated shape from northeast to southwest.
Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo museum studio.

It borders Miguel Hidalgo to the North, Benito Juárez and Coyoacán to the East, Magdalena Contreras, Tlalpan and Jalatlacalco municipality (State of Mexico) to the South, and Cuajimalpa to the West. Together with Álvaro Obregón becomes the Western access to the city, and its regional roadways are the Federal Highway and the Freeway, which constitute the entry for merchandise and population from the states of Mexico and Michoacán.

The municipality’s maximum height is 3,820 meters above sea level at the summit of Triangulo mountain, and the lowest is at 2,260 meters. The municipality occupies 7,720 hectares, or 6.28% of the Federal District area, and it has the fifth place in terms of territory of all municipalities. Of such hectares, 5,052 are urban soil and 2,668 are considered protected soil (66.1% and 33.8% respectively).

Other important elevations (in meters) are the San Miguel mountain (3,780); the Cruz de Colica o Alcalica mountain (3,610); the Temamatla mountain (3,500); the Ocotal (3,450) and the Zacazontetla (3,270). In general, the relief is of great contrasts, constituted by surfaces of piedmont, product of the natural erosion of the mountain chain.

The Secretariat of Public Security of the Mexican federal government has its headquarters in Álvaro Obregón.

Volaris has its headquarters in Colonia Zedec, Santa Fe, Álvaro Obregón; previously the headquarters were in Peña Blanca, Santa Fe. Grupo Bimbo has its headquarters in Santa Fe, Álvaro Obregón.

For the region of San Ángel, Mixcoac, Tacubaya and adjacent areas around 2240 meters above sea level and up to 2,410, the climate is consistently mild with cool mornings and wetter than in Mexico City’s downtown, averaging 15.5 °C (60 °F) and 943.1 mm (37.1 in) of rainfall yearly. The monthly temperature is warmest from April through June, reaching 17 °C (63 °F), whilst the lowest median temperatures occur from December through February reaching 13 °C (55 °F). Between 2,410 up to 3,100 meters above sea level the median temperature of the warmest months gets reduced to between 14.9 °C and 17.1 °C (58 °F to 62 °F) also from April through June. The minimum median temperatures (December–February) are cooler at 10 °C (50 °F). Precipitation here ranges between 1,000 and 1,200 mm (39 to 47 in) annually.

At higher elevations or in more forested areas temperatures cool down but precipitation rises. For instance even though the Desierto de los Leones National Park can reach above 3000 meters above sea level, at only 2220 meters the forest has a much cooler weather than the above-mentioned neighborhoods. The median temperature here drops to 10.6 °C (51 °F) and precipitation averages 1324 mm (52 in). All regions of the municipality experience the highest rainfall from June through September and the lowest from November through February.

The climate charts illustrate the differences between two regions within Álvaro Obregón.

The flora and fauna of the municipality of Álvaro Obregón developed during prehistoric times. In the region of Tizapán, San Jerónimo and El Batán there are fossils belonging to the Upper Pleistocene. On June 17, 1959 the paleontologist Manuel Maldonado Koerdell, the professor Francisco González Rul and the archeologist Arturo Romano, investigated the fossils of a horse and a mammoth “archidiskidon impera tor leidy”, that lived approximately between 8 and 10 thousand years before Christ. This fossil remains, the first to be found in the whole Valley of Mexico, were located in excavations of 0.60 and 1.80 meters in the tepetate layers that are known as Tacubaya strata.

Other findings were unveiled on August 27 of the same year in the banks of the San Ángel river, in the enlargement of Las Águilas Avenue, around the town of Tlacopac.

The fauna was very varied in prehispanic times, but most of the species have become extinct. The mountain fauna was particularly rich in precious and rapacious birds.

Many of the mammals have disappeared or are in danger of extinction. In the region the while tailed deer, the lynx and the coyote were once plentiful, but the presence of man, that for many years practised hunting in the higher parts of the territory, eliminated them.

Currently, between 2,500 and 3,000 meters above sea level there remains a large fauna, but because of its nearness to the population centers it is easily accessible and thus disturbed. In the Sierra de las Cruces, a few decades ago there can still be found mammals such as the opossum, the armadillo, shrew, rabbit, tree squirrel, ardillón, land squirrel, gopher, mice, mountain mouse, pine mouse, volcano mouse, alfarero mouse and fox, even though their current populations are much diminished.

In the region there can be found the following birds: coquita, hummingbird, saltaparedes swallow, primavera, duraznero, gorrionete, amongst others. In terms of reptiles the most common are lizards, rattlesnakes, and in rocky regions, mainly snakes. In amphibians there are salamanders that inhabit the trunks of trees, frogs and ajolotes. The most distinct insects are those who inhabit the rotten trunks of pines, the bark worn. This xylophagus coleopterous and their adults live below the bark of such trees. Amongst phitophagous invertebrates there are moths of the geometrid family, whose larvae became a serious plague in the abies forest. Another butterfly that inhabited this forest, but without feeding directly from the abies, is the synopcia exmia, whose larvae eat tepozán (Buddleia).

Nowadays, the vegetation is determined by factors such as soil, water and climate, consisting in the lower part of the municipality’s territory, in trees and bushes that have been planted in some green or recreative areas that surround the urbanised areas. In the middle area, between 2,500 and 3,000 meters, exist mesophile forests that cover ravines and gullies with epiphitous vegetation such as mosses, ferns and woody creepers. In the lava rocky region there are endemic plants such as: palo loco, palo dulce, tabaquillo, tepozán and copal; species that have been preserved in the ecologic reveroir of the UNAM. The region of great vegetation density comprises the high elevations, where there are located mixed forests, with abundancy in pines and oaks. The primary tree species are oaks, limoncillo and stands of pine, that generally grow together; the more common pines are the ocotes (Pinus moctezumae) and the Mexican mountain pine (Pinus Hartwegui), this last ones resistant to the environmental conditions of the area and due to pollution are present in a low density.

Above 3,000 meters there are coniferous forests where oak and pines dominate, that can achieve heights between 5 and 12 meters. In the southern part of the municipality there are small stands of fir trees that do not reach a great development.

The Asociación México Japonesa owns a cultural center, the Nichiboku Bunka Kaikan (日墨文化会館 “Mexican Japanese Cultural Center”), within the Las Águilas colonia of the Álvaro Obregón municipality.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
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Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

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Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Tlahuac is renowned for the lynching and severe beating of three federal agents, after they confused them for child kidnappers, even though said agents repeatedly identified themselves.

The borough of Tláhuac is located in the southeastern part of the Federal District of Mexico City, about 60 km from the historic center of Mexico City.

It is bordered by the boroughs of Iztapalapa, Milpa Alta and Xochimilco as well as the municipality of Valle de Chalco Solidaridad in the State of Mexico.

The borough extends over 89.5.km2 and it is part of the Valley of Mexico, in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt that extends across central Mexico.

The borough expands over much of the former Lake Chalco and Lake Xochimilco where the two connected, which were drained over the centuries since the Spanish conquest.

The territory is classified into three zones, flat lakebed, transitional areas and hills with accumulated volcanic materials. The main elevations include the Guadalupe Volcano, the Xaltepec Volcano, Tecuautzi, Tetecón, the Sierra de Santa Catarina and Teuhtli Volcano. The Sierra de Santa Catarina is a small volcanic belt which has elevations of up to 2,800 meters above sea level.

It serves as an important aquifer recharge area as well as a barrier to urban sprawl from Iztapalapa on the other side. On the south end is the Tehuitli Volcanco with an altitude of 2,700 meters above sea level.

The borough contains a number of towns and localities. Those considered by the government to be urban (with 2010 population figures in parentheses) are: Tláhuac (305,076), San Juan Ixtayopan (24,120), San Andrés Mixquic (13,310), Santa Catarina Yecahuitzotl (9,563), and San Nicolás Tetelco (4,246). In addition, there are approximately 50 rural settlements with populations each of less than 1,000.

The predominant climate of the borough is semi moist and temperate with an average annual temperature of 15.7C varying between a low of 8.3C and a high of 22.8C. The average annual rainfall is 533.8mm with most rain falling from June to August.

Much of the area is former shallow lake with remaining open water, wetlands and canals. Much of the surface water is saline due to the high mineral content of the soil and lack of natural outflow. The Lago de los Reyes Aztecas (Lake of the Aztec Kings) is a lake that covers 1.9 hectares and connects to the large network of canals and chinampas of the borough. It hosts about twenty five species of migratory birds including ducks and storks along with various fish, amphibians and reptiles. It is the most important tourist attraction of the borough with docks and trajinera boats. The main docks in Tlahuac do not have a large number of boats or restaurants as in Xochimilco.

It is still possible to see small natural islands as well as natural vegetation in much of the area with chinampas still growing foodstuffs such as broccoli, chard, beets, chili peppers, peas, fava beans and corn. There are four main canals: Chalco, Guadalupano, Atecuyuac and Amecameca. The first two are important as sources of water for the chinampas of the borough and as a tourist attraction. There are also other smaller canals which serve as irrigation.

On the border with the State of Mexico, there is an important ecological reserve lake area called the Cieniega de Tláhuac. There is also an artificial lake at the Bosque de Tláhuac. Los Humedales wetlands is an ecological reserve which covers between 400 and 800 hectares depending on whether it is the rainy or dry season, a remnant of Lake Chalco. It is one of the few wetlands left in the Valley of Mexico and host a large number of migratory birds. It is also home to species called pocket gophers, skunks, squirrels, snakes and bats.

Much of the borough is an important recharge zone for aquifers especially the area around the Sierra de Santa Catarina. There are a number of flooding areas, especially during the rainy season, mostly due to poor drainage systems and the existence of urban areas on former lakebed. Despite having a significant amount former lakebed the borough in general is not prone to earthquake damage, with only a few areas with susceptibility scattered in the borough. There is also a fault line south of Avenida Tláhuac.

Most of the wild vegetation of the area is that of grassland with very little forest mostly due to a long history of agriculture in the area. One of the few forested areas is the Ayaquemetl mountain is near San Nicolás Tetelco with about ten hectares. There have been some efforts at reforestation. However, most of the plant life is the growing of crops, especially in the east and south growing corn, spinach, other leafy greens, alfalfa, figs, pears, and walnuts. There is also significant aquatic vegetation such as water lilies, chichicastle and ninfa. Most of the wildlife of the area has been extinguished because of human encroachment but in the Santa Catarina mountains there are still badgers, cacomistle and bats as well as various kinds of rodents and birds found throughout the borough.

The main problems confronting the borough, like others in the south of the Federal District, are urban sprawl and environmental concerns. The area is under transition from rural to urban as it borders the urbanized Iztapalapa and the rural Milpa Alta. Its population is growing as people move away from the more crowded city center. 33.5% of the territory is urbanized and 66.5% is classified as environmentally protected. Most of the latter land (4,030 hectares out of 5,674) is farmed. Most of the rest of the land corresponds to surface water such as the Ciénega de Tláhuac and the foothills of the Teuhtli mountains west of San Juan Ixtayopan. Just under 75% of the urbanized space is residential, with 12.1% as mixed use, 5.8% is parks and green spaces, 5.5% is occupied by irregular settlements and 1.7% is dedicated to urban infrastructure. The areas undergoing the most urbanization are La Nopalera. Agrícola Metropolitana, Villa Centroamericana, Santiago Norte and La Asunción, mostly due to the construction of apartment buildings. Sprawl comes into the borough mostly from Iztapalapa, through Avenida Tláhuac and the San Rafael Atlixco rail line. It also comes in from Coyoacan and Xochimilco through the Canal de Chalco and Anillo Periférico, as well as from Valle de Solidaridad Chalco in the State of Mexico. The best preserved areas are those that border rural Milpa Alta. The main urban corridors are along Avenida Tláhuac which is also where most of the commercial activity takes place. Other corridors include Avenida Estanislao Ramírez, Avenida La Turba and Avenida Jiménez. Most of the mixed use space is in the northwest of the borough and along Avenida Tláhuac. Urbanization is most prominent in the northwest of the borough, which has most of the area’s apartment complexes. The rest of the borough has single family homes and duplexes. Other areas with significant residential growth are Zapotitlán and San Francisco Tlaltenco which has led to a deterioration of their traditional rural appearance. This is especially true in locations closest to Avenida Tlahuac. Areas which have maintained more of their rural character are Santa Catarina Yechuizotl (sheltered by Sierra de Santa Catarina), as well as SanJuan Ixtayopan, San Nicolas Tetelco and San Andrés Mixquic, which are mostly surrounded by chinampas and other farmland that is under protection.

Other green spaces in the borough include parks, sporting and recreational areas. The Bosque de Tláhuac is a recreational area with a number of attractions, which was opened in 2007, converted from a former landfill. It extends over 72 hectares and features an artificial lake, a teaching farm/greenhouse, a cactus garden, volleyball and basketball courts, soccer fields, track, bicycle paths and an area for cultural events. It also includes an area called the “Mini-Marquesa” with attractions such as ATV tracks similar to those found at the La Marquesa National Park, as well as the city’s first artificial beach (pools plus sand area) designed for children. Parque de los Olivos (Olive Tree park) dates back to the colonial period when in 1531 olive trees were planted here by missionaries and were some of the few that escaped destruction by royal decree to protect Spanish olive production. It also contains a small hill where archeological artifacts from as far back as 400 BCE have been found. Parque Xalli (Xalli Park) is located on the old road to San Francisco Tlatenco. It was founded by Alejandro Reyes and Valentín Hernández with 3,000 square meters of installations related to ecology. It has a 60 meter long zip line and a climbing wall. It has a large sand area for children, as well as a trampoline, pool, tree house and mini zip lines. There is also a petting zoo with various farm animals, most of which were donated to the park. Other green spaces include athletic and recreational centers in Santa Catarina, Colonia del Mar, Miguel Hidalgo, Zapotitlán, San Francisco Tlaltenco, San Pedro Tláhuac, San Juan Ixtayopan, San Nicolás Tetelco and San Andrés Mixquic.

Pollution problems in the borough stem from the urbanization of the area. Traffic congestion is a serious problem and parking space is severely lacking. Much of the pollution in the borough comes from fixed sources along Avenida Tláhuac. Canal and lake waters have moderate problems with pollution in the way of garbage and the infestation of non-native water lily plants. The borough generates 356 tons of trash per day, 3.12% of what is produced in the Federal District. There are thirty areas where there is illegal house building, mostly near the Sierra de Santa Catarina and around San Juan Ixtayopan and La Conchita.

The most important communities in the borough are called the Seven Original/Native Towns of Tláhuac (Siete Pueblos Originarios de Tláhuac), meaning that they were established before the arrival of the Spanish. These are Santiago Zapotitlán, San Francisco Tlaltenco, Santa Catarina Yechuizotl, San Nicolas Tetelco, San Juan Ixtayopan, San Andrés Mixquic and San Pedro Tláhuac.

San Pedro Tláhuac is the oldest of these, founded in the 13th century. From that time until well into the colonial period, it was an island in the waters between Lake Chalco and Lake Xochimilco, and was the capital of a dominion that stretched of much of what is now the borough of Tláhuac. After the Spanish conquest, the ceremonial center was destroyed on top was built a church and monastery dedicated to Saint Peter, dated to 1529. At the time, it was one of the most important churches in the southern Valley of Mexico. It was rebuilt several times due to moisture damage with the current structure dating to the 17th century. The San Pedro church as three naves with images of Saint Peter, Saint Joachim and the Holy Trinity inside. In the tower there is a clock dating to 1924, which was donated by the Ejido of Tláhuac. Around the town, there is an areas with chinampas and a small residual lake called the Lago de los Reyes Aztecas, which also hosts the “Museo Vivo” (Live Museum) about the canals and farming of the area. Its main festivity is the Regional Fair of Tláhuac, held at the end of June along with honors to the town’s patron saint.

San Andrés Mixquic in the Mesoamerican period was also a dominion located on a small lake island. Its main landmark is its parish church, founded in 1537. This church was built on top of a sanctuary for the goddess of life and death with archeological excavations finding many artifacts including a Chac Mool and two rings for a Mesoamerican ball court. The original building was mostly destroyed in an earthquake and then rebuilt in 1600. The only remains from the first church is the bell tower, which is separate from the church building. In each of the town’s named neighborhoods, there is a stone cross, which is the center of celebrations on May 3. The patron saint is honored on November 30, with processions. San Andrés Mixquis is known for its Day of the Dead celebrations which attract many visitors each year.

San Francisco Tlaltenco is one of the largest communities in the borough, located in the north of the borough on the south side of the Sierra de Santa Catarina. It main church is the San Francisco de Asís founded in 1547. Another important landmark is the Gate or Arch of Tlaltenco, which dates to the colonial period. It served as a customs checkpoint until just after the Mexican War of Independence. It is considered to be symbolic of the area. During the Mexican Revolution, it was occupied by the Zapatistas and those loyal to Venustiano Carranza as a campsite. Its patron saint, Francis of Assisi, is honored for eight days starting on October 4 with processions and sawdust carpets. Another major celebration is Carnival which is celebrated with Chinelos. On the fifth Sunday after Ash Wednesday, a Christ figure called the Señor de Mazatepec is honored.

Santiago Zapotitlán was founded in 1435. After the Aztecs conquered the area, they rearranged the layout of this town. After the Spanish conquest, the Inmaculada Concepción church was established in 1541 and rebuilt in 1939. Its founding is celebrated on December 8 of each year. Santiago Zapotitlán is noted for its religious and cultural traditions with both pre Hispanic and Spanish roots. One of its main celebrations is the La Fiesta de Luces y Música (Festival of Lights and Music) which is based on the New Fire ceremony. Today it is celebrated with traditional dances and fireworks along with music played on both indigenous and European instruments.

San Juan Ixtayopan is in the south of the borough made up of five named neighborhoods called San Augustin, La Concepción, La Soledad, La Asunción and La Lupita. Just outside there are six others called Francisco Villa, El Rosario, Tierra Blanca, Peña Alta and Jardines del Llano. Its main church is La Soledad constructed in the 19th century. Although it has been severely affected urban sprawl, there is still some chinampa farming surrounding it. The town was the site of the Battles of Ixtayopan during the Mexican Revolution. Zapatistas under Everardo González took over the area from federal troops with the support of the local people. Later these forces battled those loyal to Venustiano Carranza in the power struggles that ensued among the rebel factions. San Juan Ixtayopan has a site museum located in Los Olivos Park which houses a number of archeological finds with 188 exhibited. The main plaza is the Plaza de la Soledad, built in the 17th century. The main festivals are for Our Lady of Solitude from 2–5 January and for John the Baptist from 22 – 24 June. The town is noted for a hot beverage called calientito” (little hot one) which is a mix of sugar cane alcohol, orange juice, guava, raisins and sugar cane. In August, San Juan Ixtayopan hosts an annual Corn Fair to promote products made with the grain as well as the local culture.

San Nicolás Tetelco is centered on its parish church dedicated to Nicholas of Tolentino, constructed in the 17th century. In the presbytery, there is a large crucifix which is probably made from corn stalk in the colonial era as well as a holy water font from the 16th century. Other landmarks include the Plaza Emiliano Zapata, which is surrounded by older constructions, the Monument to Christ the King, the Ahuapa sports facility, the Ayaquemetl ecological area and the chinampa zones. It is also home to the former hacienda Santa Fe, which was founded in the 17th century which operated until the Mexican Revolution. Remains of its chapel, main house and workers’ living quarters still remain. The town is noted for its atole, cooked traditionally over a wood fire.

Santa Catarina Yecahuitzotl is located in the northeast of the borough. Its church, dedicated to Saint Catherine, dates to 1647, constructed of tezontle. The atrium has four small chapels located in the four corners. Until the 1960s, the community was isolated from Mexico City. However at that time urban sprawl began to reach it changing much of the community’s way of life. Its original name was Acatzinco, then Santa Catarina Cuautli-Itlacuayan. Its current name has been interpreted to mean “the third part of the south road,” the “nose of an amphibian” and “land of ants.” The name change came with the town’s refounding in 1924 when ejido members organized their lands among themselves. Other important locations include La Troje, site of Mexican Revolution activity, the charrería ring, the former Xico hacienda and two environmental education centers. It is divided into a number of neighborhoods called colonias such as Maria Isabel, Santiago, Del Carmen, San Juan Tlalpizahuac, Ampliación San Juan TlalpizahuacSan Francisco Apolocalco, La Cañada, Campestre Potrero, San Francisco Tlaltenco, Selene and Ampliacion Selene.

The name “Tláhuac” comes from Nahuatl, mostly likely a derivation of “Cuitláhuac”. However, its meaning is in dispute, with interpretations including “the place where cuítatl (a type of algae) is gathered”, “place where the Lord sings”, “guardian or steward of the land”, “born among the rocks of the lakes” and “place of he who cares for the water”.

The Tláhuac was established on a small island in the waters between Lake Chalco and Lake Xochimilco in 1222 by the Chichimecas. By the 14th century, it had become a dominion expanding as far as what is now Santiago Zapotitlán and Santa Catarina Yecahuizotl, but distinct from the dominion of Mixquic, which was on a nearby island. Tláhuac was connected to the mainland by two causeways leading to Santiago Zapotitlán and Tulyehualco. The first regional leader of the area was Cohuatomatzin in 1262. The dominion remained independent until the 14th century, when it was conquered by the Tepanecs. Soon after, it was dominated by the Aztecs. During the pre-Hispanic period, the economy of the area was based on chinampa farming and fishing. After conquest, the area paid tribute to Azcapotzalco and then to Tenochtitlan. The town of Tláhuac was laid out along the various dikes and canals which centered on a ceremonial center, where the San Pedro parish church is today.

The area was prone to flooding but it was prosperous due to intensive chinampa farming, growing corn, beans, chili peppers, tomatoes, squash, flowers and more. Much of this produce was sent to Mexico City as a way of paying tribute. There was a major flood in 1499, prompting the construction of a large dike against the lake waters. Another dike was constructed to separate the lakes.

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, colonial authorities defined Tláhuac as extending to Zapotitlán, Cuauhtlitl-Tlacuayan (Santa Catarina) and Tulyehualco. In the colonial period, the Spanish authorities initially emphasized Mixquic as a political center because it has only one indigenous chief, while Tláhuac was divided under four. Three orders began evangelical work, the Augustinians in Mixquic and the Franciscans, replaced by the Dominicans in Tláhuac. By the 18th century, Tláhuac had come under the administration of Chalco. The area’s economy remain tied to agriculture, still sending much of the production to Mexico City, now to be sold. Flood control projects continued, with drainage of lake area begun in 1555. During the colonial period and into the 19th century, transportation by small boats was primary on the area’s lakes and canals. Boats transported not only people but cargo, especially agricultural produce bound for Mexico City. Customs gates were installed on the main canals in Tlatenco and Tulyehualco to collect taxes on various vegetables, cereals and alcohol from the state of Morelos. Important colonial era haciendas included San Nicolas Tolentino, Santa Fe Tetelco and Zoquiapan.

After the Mexican War of Independence, Tláhuac became part of the State of Mexico. When the Federal District of Mexico City was expanded in 1854, Tláhuac became part of the District, then part of the prefecture of Xochimilco in 1857. Agriculture remained the main economic activity. In the late 19th century, the Santa Fe hacienda was known for its cattle and the size of the vegetables grown there. In 1856, the Mexico City-Tlahuac causeway flooded completely. In 1895, a project was started to drain Lake Chalco. Soon after, the Chalco-Tlaltenco road was constructed over the former lake bed, followed by a rail line that passed through half of the current territory of the borough. In the latter 19th century, steamships traveling between Mexico City and Chalco passed by.

In the 19th century, the town of Tláhuac had municipality status which was eliminated in 1903 with an reorganization of the Federal District. The Mexican Revolution soon followed with one major battle at San Juan Ixtayopan between forces loyal to Emiliano Zapata and Venustiano Carranza. After the end of the military conflict, residents petitioned for autonomy, leading to the segregation of Tláhuac from Xochimilco in 1924 as a municipality. In 1928, this revived municipality was reorganized again into the current borough. The borders of the borough were not finalized until 1994, over opposition from ejido members in some communities along the border with the State of Mexico.

The urban sprawl of Mexico City began to take over the ejido lands in the mid-20th century, with former farmlands converted into housing subdivisions, especially in the areas closest to Iztapalapa.

In November 2004, three policemen were surrounded by an angry mob in San Juan Ixtayopan. They were accused of being kidnappers after taking pictures of children. The end result was two of the policemen burned alive with one rescued hours after the incident began.

The area considers itself traditional conserving many colonial and Mesoamerican era traditions. Culturally the most important communities are the seven which have pre Hispanic roots which were located on the banks of Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco. Today these communities area marked by the oldest churches in the borough. Other important heritage sites as demarcated by INAH and the borough include the chinampas, located in various parts of the borough and Parque de los Olivos.

One important tradition is Day of the Dead, celebrated throughout the borough but San Andrés Mixquic’s is particularly well known, attracting thousands of visitors from Mexico and abroad. The celebration generally lasts three days from October 31 to November 1 each day focusing on different groups, children, adults and saints. One local tradition related to the day is to hang a paper lantern often in the form of a star at the entrance to home as a way to greet the return of the souls of the dead. The Fiestas del Santo Jubileo is a custom observed on different days in the communities of the borough. It consists of a mass and exhibition of the Host on the main altar of the church for 40 hours, surrounded by flowers, sawdust carpets, live music, dances and fireworks. Carnival is important in San Francisco Tlaltenco and Santiago Zapotitlán, where dancers generally are chinelos and those in charro suits. These carnivals begin on the fourth Sunday of Lent. The tradition in San Francisco Tlaltenco goes back to the end of the 19th century. A reenactment of Palm Sunday has been held each year at San Pedro Tláhuac for over eighty years, with the procession winding its way through eight different neighborhoods. San Pedro Tláhuac is also the site of the Regional Fair of Tláhuac. It was first organized in 1956, with the goal so attracting tourism and encouraging youth to maintain traditions. It begins with a procession of the image of the patron saint, the Apostle Peter, in decorated trajinera boats in the chinampa areas of Lago de los Reyes Aztecas. Other events include the selection of a fair queen, conferences, cultural events, concerts, dances, fireworks and more, with proceeds going to the restoration of the San Pedro Apostal Church. The Baile del Guajolote (Dance of the Turkey) is a traditional dance in the towns of Santiago Zapotitlán and San Pedro Tláhuac, which is performed at weddings, baptism, first communions and quinceañeras. It includes the gifting of a live turkey along with a large food basket from one family to another. Another important traditional dance, especially in Santiago Zapotitlan is the Dance of Moors and Christians also called the Danza de los Santiagueros (Dance of those of Saint James). The dance represents the battles between the Moors and Christians in which Saint James plays a central role.

Typical foods are mostly similar to those found in the rest of Mexico City. One local dish is michmole, made from fish and sauce with herbs such as epazote .

Overall, there is a significant lack of cultural institutions such as theaters, auditoriums and museums. However a number of institutions do exist. The Tlahuac Regional Museum is located in San Pedro Tláhuac. It is housed in the former civil registry office and was the first museum established in the borough. The Regional Museum of Mixquic is on the side of the parish church. It contains exhibitions of local archeological pieces which mostly date between 1200 to 1500CE but also some from the Toltec and Teotihuacan periods. The church and former monastery are also classed as an archeological site. The Andrés Quintana Roo Museum has a collection of 279 archeological pieces from the collectionof Dr. Socorro Bernal Roque. The pieces are mostly of clay and stone from the Teotihuacan era found in the Tlahuac area. The most important pieces are a chac-mool, the remains of a teotlachtli, clay and stone seals, a tzompantli and a cylindrical serpent. The Tomás Medina Villarruel Museum is named after a native of San Juan Ixtayopan who is an important figure in the conservation of the archeological record of the area. In 1984, he and his family donated a collection of 850 pieces to the borough. The museum was built in 1998 as a community museum and the collection has since grown with new donations. The Fábrica de Artes y Oficios FARO Tláhuac was founded in 2006, as part of a network of FAROs sponsored by the city Secretary of Culture. Its aim is to promote community involvement in the arts and various trades. It has workshops on various to allow residents to learn creative and practical skills as well as conferences, cinema, theater, art exhibitions, concerts and more. Other cultural institutions in the borough include the Centro Cultural Zapotitlán, Centro Cultural Santa Catarina, Centro Cultural Nopalera, Casa de Cultura Diego Rivera, Casa de Cultura Frida Kahlo, Casa de Cultura Ampliación Los Olivos and the Casa de Cultura Rosario Castellanos.

From the second half of the 20th century, the population and number of housing units has risen rapidly. The population has grown from 29,880 inhabitants in 1960, to 146,293 in 1980, to 255,891 in 1995 to 361,014 as of the 2010 census. In the 1960s and 1970s, the rate of growth was over 7%. It has since slowed to under 4.5%, but it is still the highest in the Federal District. The main draw is the relatively low cost of land in comparison to the rest of the city. Tláhuac has a population density of 90 inhabitants per hectare, one of the lowest in the Federal District, which has an average of 128 per hectare. However, in some areas, density has climbed to over 200 per hectare mostly in the northwest. However, most of the borough still has fewer than 100 per hectare. Neighborhoods with the densest population include La Nopalera, Colonial Miguel Hidalgo and Colonial Los Olivos where most of the borough’s apartment complexes can be found. Just under eighty percent of housing units are owned by their occupants, but still about ninety percent of housing units are single family homes.

Between 60,000 and 70,000 families inhabit 93 irregular settlements in Tlahuac. While some of the irregular settlements are in conservation areas, most are in areas in which the topography does not allow for the provision of urban services such as water. Although basic services extend to over 80-90 percent of the population, communities in the periphery and those which are new and not yet consolidated tend to suffer a lack of basic services along with transportation and roads.

Just under seventy percent of the population is under age thirty but this percentage has been slowing shrinking as the borough ages.

The Consejo Nacional de Población ranks Tláhuac as having a very low level of socioeconomic marginalization. About seventy percent of the population is employed in commerce and services. Twenty eight percent is involved in manufacturing and about 3.5% work in agriculture, the highest percentage in the Federal District. Over ninety percent of the commerce in the delegation occurs in small businesses, mostly along Avenida Tláhuac, Avenida La Turba and in the centers of the towns. Informal commerce, especially tianguis markets, is found in Zapotitlpan, San Pedro Tláhuac, near the San Lorenzo Tezonco cemetery and some along Avenida Tláhuac. There are 712 manufacturing concerns generally small concerns located in the northwest of the borough, producing food products, drinks, tobacco products, metal products, machinery and equipment. The service sector is mostly related to repair and maintenance. Most agriculture is found in the south and east with just over 4,000 hectares are under cultivation in the borough growing corn, animal feed, spinach, alfalfa and figs. Most of the livestock raised is pigs, followed by cattle than sheep.

The borough has two groups of police and five monitoring stations. However, the urbanization of the area has brought in increased crime including gang activity.

Transportation for the borough connects the area with neighboring boroughs and the State of Mexico. The Most important road is Avenida Tláhuac, which crosses almost the entire territory, followed by Anillo Periférico and the Mexico City-Tulyehualco road. Road traffic is heavy and congested during many hours of the day, including weekends. Some of the worst traffic in the borough is in Santiago Tulyehualco, where various major roads such as Aquiles Serdan, Francisco Presa, the Tlahuac-Tulyehualco road and Isidro Tapia all converge. There are both public and private bus lines, mostly working out of four official bus stations. There is also one taxi station but there are also a large number of informal bicycle taxis, motorcycle taxis and taxis converted from golf carts because of the lack of organized public transportation in a number of areas.

A major change in public transportation is the completion of Line 12 of the Mexico City Metro, which a terminal in Tláhuac. The construction of the line into the borough was controversial. One argument was that it would worsen the already bad traffic congestion by encouraging more urban sprawl. Ejido members protested the appropriation of the Ejido of San Francisco Tlaltenco in order to build the terminal. The establishment of the terminal Tláhuac caused a struggle between bus operators in the Federal District and neighboring State of Mexico for rights to transport passengers between the station and points in the State of Mexico, especially the suburb of Chalco. Residents complained that construction of the line left Avenida Tláhuac in poor condition for local traffic and pedestrians.

The municipality of Azcapotzalco is in the Valley of Mexico with its eastern half on the lakebed of the former Lake Texcoco and the west on more solid ground. The historic center is on the former shoreline of this lake.

The average altitude is 2240 m above sea level.

There are 54 parks with no wild vegetation but rather planted species such as willow, cedar, and pine trees. These parks cover 100.51 hectares. The most important of these are the Parque Tezozómoc and Alameda Norte, which together account for 52.4 hectares.

Parque Tezozomoc was inaugurated in 1982 and designed as a scaled replica of the Valley of Basin of Mexico in the pre-Hispanic era. The Alameda Norte park is next to the Ferrería station. It has a pond which was used as an ice rink and playing field but was rehabilitated in the 2000s.

Other important green areas include community squares such as Plaza Hidalgo, sports centers, college campuses, especially that of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, community parks, and cemeteries.

Azcapotzalco, like the rest of Mexico City, experiences a highland climate due to its elevation. The climate is characterized by mild temperatures year-round, with cooler winters and warmer summers.

Average temperatures typically range from 12°C in the coldest months to 22°C in the warmest months. The rainy season usually occurs from June to October, with the rest of the year being relatively dry.

The best time to visit

The best time to visit Azcapotzalco and Mexico City in general is during the dry season, which is from November to May. This period offers pleasant weather with lower chances of rain, making it ideal for outdoor activities and sightseeing.

Originally the town of Azcapotzalco consisted of neighborhoods from the pre-Hispanic period. Many of these neighborhoods exist to this day, called colonias, barrios, or pueblos.

A number of them maintain individual cultural traits despite being fully engulfed by the urban sprawl of Mexico City. Today, the municipality has 61 colonias, 15 pueblos and 11 barrios. In 1986, INAH designated the center of Azcapotzalco as a historical monument.

In 2011, the historic center was designated as a “Barrio Mágico”.

The most important community remains the former town of Azcapotzalco, also called the historic center, marked by Plaza Hidalgo. This square consists of fenced stone paths surrounding gardens. Its two main focal points are a statue of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla facing Avenida Azcapotzalco and a six-sided kiosk in the center.

On Saturdays, chess players convene to play during the afternoon. Café Alameda is on Plaza Hidalgo — a café and bar with a rock and roll theme. It has images of Jim Morrison, Freddie Mercury, Elvis Presley, and John Lennon lining its walls.

At night on weekends, it hosts live bands that attract youths from the area.

The Historic Archive of Azcapotzalco is on the south side of Plaza Hidalgo. It contains a mural painted by Antonio Padilla Pérez titled Origen y Trascendencia del Pueblo Tepaneca. The building contains archeological pieces.

Across the street from the plaza are the parish church and the former municipal hall. The parish and former monastery of San Felipe and Santiago Apóstoles dates from 1565. It has the largest atrium in Mexico City, surrounded by a thick wall with inverted arches.

The main church has a large Baroque portal which contains the main door topped by a choir window. To the side, there is a slender bell tower with pilasters on its four sides. Under the tower, there is an image of a red ant.

A local legend says that when the ant climbs the bell tower, the world will end. To the right of the portal are three arches that front the former Dominican monastery. The interior of the church has a Baroque gilded altarpiece with Salomonic columns which contain images of the Virgin Mary. The main altar is Neoclassical.

To the side, there is a chapel called the Capilla del Rosario from 1720 with Baroque and Churrigueresque altars. The former cloisters have remains of their former mural work.

Next to the parish and taking over some of its former atrium space is the Casa de Cultura cultural center.

The building was constructed in 1891 originally as the municipal hall for Azcapotzalco. It has a sandstone portal with a balcony on the upper level featuring a double arch and an ironwork railing from 1894.

The building has three exhibition halls on the lower level.

The upper level is dedicated to the Sala Tezozomoc hall, larger than the lower halls combined. The garden areas have rose bushes and orange trees. These areas host art exhibits, workshops, classes, and other cultural events.

The center has a mural called La herencia tepaneca en ul umbral del tercer milenio by Arturo García Bustos, a student of Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera. In 1986, the building was named a historic monument by INAH and converted into its current use in 1991 on its 100th anniversary.

The main street in the historic center is Avenida Azcapotzalco, which is home to long-established businesses. One of these is the Nevería y Cafetería El Nevado, which has a 1950s rock and roll atmosphere, uniformed waitresses, and mid-20th-century furnishings.

There are cantinas such as El Dux de Venicia (over 100 years old) with its original furniture and La Luna established in 1918 and noted for its “torta” sandwiches.

The Principe Tlaltecatzin Archeological Museum is a private institution founded by Octavio Romera that focuses on pre-Hispanic pieces related to the Azcapotzalco area. It is the result of a lifelong exploration and study of artifacts he found since he was a child. He educated himself and is considered an expert in the pre-Hispanic history and archeology of the area.

The oldest library of the municipality, Biblioteca Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, has murals by Juan O’Gorman.

In addition to the historic center, there are other important communities, many of which maintain old traditions. The Barrio de San Miguel Amantla is near the former 18 de Marzo refinery. It is one of the oldest in the municipality with one of the oldest churches.

In the Mesoamerican period, it was noted for its plumería, or the making of objects with feathers. The oldest standing church is in San Miguel Amantla which had fallen into ruins but was rebuilt using the original blocks.

Barrio de San Luis is one of over 20 which date from the Mesoamerican period. It is noted for its church and its barbacoa. The Barrio de Santa Apolonia Tezcolco was the site of the Tezozomoc’s treasury.

The Barrio de San Juan Tlilhuaca is the largest neighborhood in the municipality and contains the largest church. This church is famous for its passion play for Holy Week and is surrounded by old cypress trees said to have been planted as a tribute to Moctezuma.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, areas in the municipality became the site of country homes for the wealthy of Mexico City. Today several chalets and English-style homes with pitched roofs, towers, porches, and gardens can be seen especially in the Clavería neighborhood.

This neighborhood was as exclusive as Colonia Juárez and Colonia Condesa at that time. Of the housing developments constructed in the latter 20th century, the most important is the Unidad Habitational El Rosario.

This apartment complex has 170 buildings, with 7,606 apartments housing over 50,500 residents. It is the largest of its kind in Latin America.

Azcapotzalco (from āzcapōtzalli “anthill” + -co “place”; literally, “In the place of the anthills”) is one of the 16 municipalities (municipios) into which Mexico’s Mexico City is divided.

The name “Azcapotzalco” has its roots in the Nahuatl language, which was spoken by the indigenous people of the region before the Spanish colonization. It is believed to mean “anthill” or “place of the anthills.”

Azcapotzalco has a rich history that predates the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. It was a prominent city-state in the pre-Columbian era and was known for its agricultural practices, particularly the cultivation of chinampas, which were artificial farming islands.

The name is derived from Nahuatl and means “ant hill” with the municipality Aztec glyph depicting a red ant surrounded by corn. It comes from a legend that says that after the creation of the Fifth Sun, the god Quetzalcoatl was tasked with recreating man.

To do this, he needed to enter the realm of the dead, Mictlan, to recover the bones of men from the Fourth Sun.

Ants helped Quetzalcoatl to find the realm of the dead and bring the bones up as well as grains of corn. Another version of the legend relates to the discovery of corn by observing that ants had put grains underground and corn plants grew there.

The very early history of the area follows that of the rest of the Valley of Mexico. About 7,000 years ago, hunter/gatherers arrived to the valley attracted by the vegetation and large game such as mammoths.

Fossilized mammoth, bison, and other bones were found when Line 6 of the Metro was constructed. When the large game died out, the inhabitants of the valley turned to agriculture, forming permanent villages sometime between 5000 and 2000 BCE.

Plants were domesticated — the most important of which were corn, squash, chili peppers, avocados, and beans.

Pottery and villages were founded all over the Valley of Mexico from 2200 BCE to 1200 BCE, supported by agriculture with some hunting and fishing. From 1200 to 700 BCE the most important villages were in the south of the valley.

Around 200 BCE, the Teotihuacan civilization arose and the Azcapotzalco area rose in importance as well, being in the empire’s political and cultural sphere. Villages that grew during this time included San Miguel Amantla, Santiago Ahuixotla, and Santa Lucia which are in the south of the modern municipality.

When Teotihuacan waned in 800 CE, the Azcapotzalco area remained important as a center of that culture, becoming an important ceremonial center. When Tula rose, Toltec influence then dominated Azcapotzalco and the rest of the Valley of Mexico.

Toltec influence is most evident in ceramic finds from Santiago Ahuizotla which was possibly a Toltec tribute city.

When Tula fell, there were new migrations into the Valley of Mexico including Otomis, Mazahuas, and Matlatzincas. One of these groups was led by a chieftain called Matlacoatl in the 12th century. Legend states that he established the village of Azcapotzaltongo, which is now Villa Nicolás Romero in 1152, but its development is best documented between 1200 and 1230. The village grew to become the Tepanec Empire in the 12th and 13th centuries with a ruling dynasty with the territory expanding over the Valley of Mexico. Acolhuatzin was the leader from 1283 to 1343. He married a daughter of Xolotl of Tenayuca and then moved the capital of the dominion to what is now the historic center of Azcapotzalco, on the edge of what was Lake Texcoco. He allowed the Mexica to settle on Tepaneca lands, founding Tenochtitlan, in exchange for tribute and military service. The last major ruler of Azcapotzalco was Tezozomoc who ruled from 1367 to 1427. Under him, the empire reached over most of the Valley of Mexico into Cuernavaca and north into Tenayuca and Atotonilco. This made Azcapotzalco the most important city in the Valley of Mexico and archeological work related to this dominion continues to this day.

In 2012, burials and remains of buildings were found in the San Simon Pochtlan neighborhood, believed to have belonged to Tepaneca traders between 1200 and 1300CE. Other settlements were found in the same area when Line 6 was constructed in 1980.

Under the Tepanecas, conquered areas were allowed to keep their own leadership as long as they paid tribute and performed military service. In 1427, these leaders included Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco, Izcoatl of Tenochtitlan, and Totoquihuaztli of Tlacopan. When Tezozomoc died, there was a power struggle for the throne which allowed these tribute-paying entities a chance to rebel, forming the Triple Alliance and defeating Azcapotzalco in 1428. The former Tepanec lands were divided among the three leaders and the city of Azcapotzalco was destroyed and turned into a slave market.

With the end of the Tepanec Empire, political and economic power shifted to Texcoco, Tlatelolco, and Tenochtitlan.

The area remained ruled by the Aztec Empire until 1521 when the Aztecs fell to the Spanish when Azcapotzalco had a population of 17,000. From 1528 to 1529 the Dominicans were in charge of the evangelization of the area under Fray Lorenzo de la Asunción, who built churches of over the former Tepaneca ceremonial center dedicated to the Apostles Phillip and James. Despite accounts that Lorenzo de la Asuncion defended the indigenous against their Spanish overlords, during the 16th century, the indigenous population of the area fell from 17,000 to about 3,000 due to mistreatment and disease.

During the colonial period, the area not underwater was home to haciendas, resulting from the partition of lands among the conquistadors and their descendants. In 1709, Azcapotzalco was formed by 27 communities, divided into six haciendas and nine ranches. Azcapotzalco was the scene of one of the last battles of the Mexican War of Independence with the Army of the Three Guarantees under Anastasio Bustamante defeating royalist forces on August 19, 1821, shortly before Agustín de Iturbide entered Mexico City.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the area was rural, far outside Mexico City proper, part of the State of Mexico. It was organized as a municipality in 1824 with the town of Azcapotzalco serving as the seat of government for ranches and haciendas such as Ameleo, San Rafael, San Marcos, El Rosario, Pantaco, San Isidro, San Lucua, Acaletengo and Azpeitia along with communities such as Concepción, San Simón, San Martín, Santo Domingo, Los Reyes, Santa Catarina, Santa Bárbara, San Andrés, San Marcos, San Juan Mexicanos, San Juan Tlilhuaca, Xiocoyahualco, Santa Cruz del Monte, San Mateo, San Pedro, San Bartolome, San Francisco, Santa Apolonia, Santa Lucia, Santiago, San Miguel Ahuizutla, Santa Cruz Acayuca, Nextengo, San Lucas, San Bernabe, Santa Maria, San Sebastian and Santo Tomas. When it became part of the Federal District of Mexico City in 1854, Azcapotzalco was classified as a town as part of the Guadalupe municipality but in 1899 it became the head of its own municipality. The town of Azcapotzalco was still separate from Mexico City by about two leagues. In the 19th century, the community of San Juan Tlilhuaca was known for its warlocks. By the end of the 19th century, the municipality had a population of about 11,000 with 7,500 in the seat.

At that time, the area became popular with the wealthy who built country homes, especially along the Mexico-Tacuba road and near the town of Azcapotzalco. This construction was the forerunner of many of the municipality’s more modern neighborhoods. In the first decades of the 20th century, rail lines were constructed, including a trolley that connected the town of Azcapotzalco with Mexico City Center in 1913.

According to the 1900 census, the Federal District has an Azcapotzalco District which consisted of the municipalities of Azcapotzalco and Tacuba. These districts were eliminated in 1903, creating thirteen municipalities, of which Azcapotzalco was one. In 1928, the District was reorganized again into municipalities which the town of Azcapotzalco still heads.

From the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1920, the Mexico City area began a process of rapid growth, with the modernization of infrastructure and the establishment of industry in the area. The first factories in the municipality were established in Colonia Vallejo in 1929, which led to the industrialization of most of the area. The Refinería 18 de Marzo refinery was founded at the end of the 1930s and attracted even more industry. Today, it has been abandoned. In 1944, the federal government formally established the industrial zone of Colonia Vallejo. Around the same time, the government also established a major rail station for cargo at Pantaco.

The Industrialization created new residential neighborhoods, mostly for the working classes. Two exceptions were Colonia Clavería and Nueva Santa María which remained middle class in the mid-20th century, mostly descendants of those who had built country homes. In the latter 20th century, the rest of the vacant land in the municipality was built to make the territory 100% urbanized. The urbanized area in the municipality increased from 1.8% in 1940 to 95.2% at the beginning of the 1980s. Most of this last construction in the north and west was residential areas. In the 1970s, the Azcapotzalco campus of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana was established as a major educational center for Mexico City as well as the El Rosario apartment complex, the largest of its kind in Latin America.

Residents of Azcapotzalco are referred to as Chintololos. There are several stories as to the origin of the term, but Azcapotzalco chronicler José Antonio Urdapilleta states that it came from a disrespectful Aztec term “tsintli- tololontic” which means excessively round buttock.

Over time the pronunciation changed to the current and its disrespectful meaning disappeared.

Azcapotzalco holds one of the oldest continuous annual pilgrimages to the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe. It is considered to be the first one organized by the indigenous in Mexico with records indicating the first one done in 1532.

The annual event is known as the Fiesta de los Naturales in which leaders from 28 communities collect money and more as an offering to Guadalupe. Before the procession sets off, there is a festival with fireworks and a mass to bless the pilgrims.

One legend of the area is about the “Enchanted Pool of Xancopina” a freshwater spring that existed during the pre-Hispanic era and where Moctezuma is said to have submerged much of his treasure after being defeated by the Spanish.

It was where the Unidad Habitacional Cuitláhuac is now. The first El Bajio restaurant was founded in Azcapotzalco and is still in operation. The chain specializes in Mexican food from the center of the country.

The municipality area has had a major road linking it to the historic center of Mexico City since the pre-Hispanic period, today called the Mexico-Tacuba road. It continues to be a major thoroughfare.

The development of industry in the municipality, then extending north and west into the panhandle of neighboring Mexico State has prompted interconnected infrastructure, especially in transportation.

Major thoroughfares of this type include Avenida Aquiles Serdán, Calzada Vallejo (Circuito Interior), Eje 3, Eje 4, and Eje 5 Norte, especially near the State of Mexico border.

Azcapotzalco experiences very heavy traffic flow with an average of 800,000 vehicles transiting in or through it. Traffic jams are common, especially at rush hour and even at off-peak times due to faulty synchronization of traffic lights.

In the 19th century, a major rail station was constructed called the Pical-Pantaco terminal. It is used for shipping goods between Mexico City and the north of the country, and it has become an obstruction of traffic flow.

To distinguish it from the rest of Coyoacán borough, the former independent community is referred to as Villa Coyoacán or the historic center of the borough. Consisting now of 29 blocks, it is one of the oldest neighborhoods in Mexico City, located 10 km south of the Zocalo (main square) of Mexico City. This area is filled with narrow cobblestone streets and small plazas, which were laid out during the colonial period, and today give the area a distinct and bohemian identity. The area is filled with mostly single family homes, which were former mansions and country homes built between the colonial period to the mid 20th century. The Project for Public Spaces ranked the neighborhood as one of the best urban spaces to live in North America in 2005 and is the only Mexican neighborhood on the list. This area was designated as a “Barrio Mágico” by the city in 2011.

The center of Coyoacán is relatively peaceful during the week, but it becomes crowded and festive on weekends and holidays. After the Zocalo, the most-visited place in Mexico City is this historic center, especially the twin plazas in its center. According to the borough, the area receives about 70,000 people each weekend. The area is a stop for both the Turibus and Tranvia Turistico tour bus routes, on their routes though San Ángel, Ciudad Universitaria and other locations in the south of Mexico City. People come to enjoy the still somewhat rural atmosphere of the area as well as the large number of restaurants, cafes, cantinas, museums, bookstores and other cultural attractions. Some of these businesses have been around for almost a century. In the two main plazas and even in smaller ones such as the one in the neighboring Santa Catarina neighborhood. Mimes, clowns, musicians, folk and indigenous dancers, storytellers and other street performers can be found entertaining crowds. Vendors sell street food such as ice cream, homemade fruit drinks, esquites (flavored corn kernels) and corn-on-the-cob served with mayonnaise, lime, chili pepper and grated cheese, amaranth bars, and various candies. In the evening, food vendors tend to sell more hot items such as quesadillas, sopes, tortas, tostadas, pozoles and more. One known food vendor goes by the name of Rogelio. He is known for making pancakes (called hotcakes) in the shape of animals and humans. These are usually eaten as a snack with jam, cream and other toppings.

The tourism has been a mixed blessing for the historic center as commercial establishments open, helping the economy, but also push residents out. In the historic center, there are over 860 retail businesses, mostly restaurants, about 200 of which were established in the last five years. Residents attribute the growth to Mexico City’s promotion of the area tourism in general as well as the opening of commercial centers in the borough. While the growing business helps the economy, resident groups fear that the area will lose its current character, as many businesses are opening in formerly residential buildings, with questionable legal basis. Currently, most of the borough, especially in historic center, is residential with older adults. Property prices are high, leading to sales not to new families but rather to larger commercial interests, squeezing out smaller businesses along with residents. Neighborhood groups have formed to confront the changes and preserve the historic value of the area. Another serious problem for the area is the traffic jams and serious lack of parking in the historic center. The quantity of cars and the lack of traffic patrols have meant the proliferation of “franeleros” or people who illegally take possession of public areas such as streets to charge for parking.

The historic area is centered on two large plazas filled with Indian laurel trees called the Jardin del Centenario and the Jardín Hidalgo. These plazas cover an area of 24,000m2, which were renovated, along with the areas around them in 2008. The green areas were rehabilitated, and areas were paved with red and black volcanic stone. Renovation of the two plazas and the streets around them cost 88.3 million pesos. For over twenty five years, these plazas, especially Plaza Hidalgo, and the streets around them were filled with vendors (wandering and with stalls). When renovation efforts began, 150 vendors were removed from the plazas proper with about 500 total including the surrounding streets. While the practice was illegal, it had been tolerated by authorities, even though it caused damage to the plazas and caused traffic problems. One of the main goals of the renovation work in 2008 was to remove these vendors and move them to a new crafts bazaar built nearby. Initially, opposition to the removal of the vendors came not only from the vendors themselves, but also from some neighborhood groups and local businesses who feared their removal would hurt tourism. When renovation work finished in 2009, police were assigned to the plazas to keep vendors from returning, leading to confrontations, both physically in the plazas and legally in the courts. The borough began to issue some permits for vendors, but there was opposition. Eventually, a group representing the vendors obtained a court order to allow forty vendors to return to the plazas, citing the history of tolerating such activity in the past. This order is still opposed by some neighborhood groups, but as of 2010, there are still a limited number of these vendors selling in the plazas.

Plaza Hidalgo, also called Jardín (garden) Hidalgo is the main plaza or square of the borough. It is bordered by Calle Carillo Puerto on the east, Calle Caballocalco on the west, Calle B. Dominguez and the Casa Municipal on the north and the Plaza del Centenario and the Parish is San Juan Bautista on the south. In the center of the plaza, there is an early 20th-century kiosk with a stained glass cupola topped by a bronze eagle. This kiosk was donated to the then village by Porfirio Díaz for the then-upcoming Centennial of Mexico’s Independence in 1910. The eagle design is one adopted by Mexico after the French Intervention. As the plaza is named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a statue of the priest, created by Luis Arias can also be found on the plaza. Behind it is a sculpture carved from a tree trunk called “La Familia de Antonio Alvarez Portual y Josué.

The Plaza del Centenario (also called the Jardín del Centenario) is slightly smaller and located just west of the Plaza Hidalgo, separated by Calle Carrillo Puerto. This plaza originally was part of the very large atrium that belonged to Parish of San Juan Bautista during the colonial period. The main entrance to this atrium still exist on the west side of this plaza and are called the Arcadas Atrial or the Arcos del Jardín del Centenario. This entrance was built in the 16th century of stone with decorative motifs that show both European and indigenous influence. The current name for this area comes from the Centennial of Mexico’s Independence. In the center of the plaza, there is a fountain which contains a bronze sculpture of two coyotes, which refer to the borough’s name. The south side of the plaza is lined with cafes and restaurants, including the well-known Café El Parnaso, and the north side features a very large crafts markets.

The Casa Municipal, also referred to La Casa de Cortés, is a building located on the north side of the Plaza Hidalgo. It has served as an administrative/governmental building since it was constructed in the 18th century. The erroneous name of Casa de Cortés (House of Cortés, referring to Hernán Cortés), comes from Coyoacán’s association with the conquistador. Cortés did live in Coyoacán in 1521 and 1522, while the destroyed Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was being rebuilt into Mexico City, and the area was the capital of the colony of New Spain. However, Cortés never lived at the site, despite a plaque on building that says that he did. Cortés residence in Coyoacán was on lands that belonged to the then leader of the indigenous of this area, Juan de Guzmán Iztolinque, in the area where the La Conchita Church and plaza are found now. What Cortés eventually built here where administrative buildings for the offices used to manage the vast lands he was granted as the Marquis del Valle de Oaxaca, which included the Coyoacán area. Local legend states that this was the location were Cuauhtémoc was tortured as the Spanish tried to learn of the whereabouts of more treasure.

The current structure was built in the mid 18th century, by Cortés’ descendants, who still carried the title of the Marquis of the Valle de Oaxaca to replace the old structure, which had deteriorated. In the 1850s, the building began to be used as the seat of the government of the municipality of Coyoacán, which then belonged to the State of Mexico, very separate from Mexico City. When the borough of Coyoacán was created in 1928, as part of the Federal District, the building remained the government seat but of the modern “delegación.” The structure was declared a Colonial Monument by INAH in 1932.

The structure is much the same as it was when it was constructed in the 18th century. The facade is simple and is fronted by a series of columns in sandstone and wood over which is a roof. The door and window jambs are typical of civil constructions of the 18th century with wrought iron work. The facade is topped by a wide cornice and inverted arches. At the very front is a sculpture of two coyotes in volcanic stone, the current logo of the borough. Above the entrance is the coat of arms granted to Coyoacán by Charles IV of Spain. On one side of the building is the Sala de Cabildos, or City Council Hall. It was painted by Aurora Reyes Flores with a mural depicting pre-Hispanic Coyoacan and includes depictions of the landscape of the area including the Xitle volcano, the Tepaneca god Xocotlhuetzin as well as the Mesoamerican deity Quetzalcoatl. Next to this hall is an attached chapel. The mural in the chapel was done by Diego Rosales in 1961, depicting the early history of Mexico with personages such as Cuauhtémoc, Cortés, La Malinche and Pedro de Alvarado. Scenes of the work cover the walls and the ceiling.

One of the most important historic buildings in the borough is the Parish of San Juan Bautista. Built between 1520 and 1552, it is one of three oldest parish churches in Mexico City, along with the ones in Tlalpan and the small community of Amaqueman. Originally, this church and the cloister next to it were constructed as a monastery by the Dominicans, but the complex was transferred to the Franciscans. Over time, as the complex deteriorated and was reconstructed and restored various time, most was replaced so that now the only original parts from the 16th century are the choir area, the Rosario Chapel and the main altar. However, much of the same layout remains. The parish church has a large open chapel, but only a portion of the atrium it had in the 16th century. During much of the colonial period, the atrium functioned as a cemetery. Today, much of this atrium is now the Plaza del Centenario. The interior of the church has seven chapels, with the Rosario Chapel containing an ornate Baroque altarpiece from the end of the 17th century. The monastery portion is two floors surrounding a large inner courtyard. It conserves a large part of the original wood beams and decorative work in wood which was done by indigenous hands. The feast day for San Juan Bautista is 24 June. In the church a special altar is installed and mass is said all day. The most important mass occurs at midday with mariachi music, with a meal offered in the adjoining monastery building. The event is organized by 24 civil associations and the chaplains of the parish.

In 2005, the San Juan Bautista church underwent renovations to its tower, atrium, facade, portal for pilgrims, the north and south sides and the cupola and more under the supervision of INAH and academics from UNAM. Prior to this, there had been no restoration work to the building for about a century. The cupola was particularly damaged, with trees and other plants growing out of it. Much of the work was to make straight many of the walls and floors, which had cracked and warped. Studies were done on the building to determine what materials in what colors were used in order to use the same. It was declared a National Monument in 1934. The work was sponsored by government and private funds.

Other landmarks off the plazas include the Museo Nacional de Culturas Populares, and the Acuavida Coyoacán. The museum is located just off the Plaza del Centenario, and features mostly temporary exhibits related to popular or mass culture such as one related to lucha libre wrestling. The museum was created in 1982, to show the values and ways of live of the various modern cultural groups in Mexico. It has various halls, an auditorium and two courtyards in which are exhibitions, auditions, concerts, plays, recitals and craft workshops for children. The Acuavida Coyacán Aquarium is on the north side of the Plaza del Centenario. It offers exhibits of fishes, reptiles, live coral, aquatic plants and more, including the only freshwater manta ray in captivity in the Americas.

The rest of the historic center and nearby neighborhoods are filled with homes built from the colonia era to the middle of the 20th century, many of which have been catalogued for their historic value. Many of these homes can be found one two of the historic center’s oldest streets, the Calle de Higuera, which leads southeast away from the Parish of San Juan Miguel and to the La Concepción neighborhood and Calle Francisco Sosa, which leads away from the same area towards San Angel. Calle Francisco Sosa alone has 65 structures catalogued by INAH for their historic value. One of the most important of these structures is the Casa de Ordaz, located on Calle Francisco Sosa on the corner with the Plaza de Centenario. ) It was long thought to have belonged to conquistador Diego de Ordaz, who died in 1532, but research has shown that it was built sometime in the 18th century. Remodeling work was authorized on the Casa de Ordaz in 2004 by the INAH, but complaint stated that the owner, Banamex, gutted the interior and exceeded the limits set for the work by INAH. However, the chronicler of the borough, Luis Everaert, stated that the only original part of the building was the facade, which was not changed. The house underwent modification in the 1930s. In the 1920s, it was a school for girls, the first in Coyoacan, In the 1930s, it was the Instituto Centroamericano, a middle school for boys. The Instituto Italiano de Cultura (Italian Cultural Institute) on Francisco Sosa Street is house in a structure built between the 17th and 18th centuries and remodeled in the 20th. This structure is an adobe and stone mansion with a flat red façade with Moorish style decorative features. It has an inner courtyard with a tile decorated fountain and a private altar. It houses the cultural offices of the Italian Embassy. The main house of the San Pedro Martír Hacienda is located off of Belisario Dominguez Street. The house is now divided into three independent parts, but they retain their original facades. In 1932, this house was where the Escuela de Pintura al Aire Libre (Open Air Painting School) was established, which was an important artistic movement.

The borough of Coyoacán was created in 1928, when the Federal District of Mexico City was divided into 16 administrative parts. The borough is named after the old village of Coyoacán, where the borough government is seated. This borough is much larger than the village, extending for 54.4km2 in the geographic center of the Federal District. Accounting for 3.6% of the Federal District, it is the tenth largest borough. The borough is bordered to the north by the boroughs of Benito Juárez, Iztapalapa, Xochimilco, Tlalpan and Álvaro Obregón. Border roads include Avenida Río Churubusco, Calzada Ermita Iztapalapa, Calzada de la Viga, Canal Nacional, Calzada del Hueso, Avenida del Bordo, Calzado Acoxpa, Calzada de Tlalpan, Avenida de Pedregal, Anillo Periférico, Boulevard de las Cataratas, Circuito Universitario, Avenida Ciudad Universitaria, San Jerónimo, Río Magdalena and Avenida Universidad.

Sixty-nine percent of the land is residential, 60% is open or green space and the rest is mixed use or commercial. The borough contains 167,157 housing units with between two and four occupant, which is 7.5% of the total of the District. It contains 7.2% of the total population of the Federal District. This population has fallen slightly from 640,423 to 628,063 (2000 to 2005) as the overall population of Mexico City has risen.

However, quality of life in this borough his ranked among the top in the nation and has been ranked internationally. Coyoacan was ranked third best place to live in the country in 2004 by the United Nations Development Programme, behind Benito Juarez and San Pedro Garza García in Nuevo León. The ranking is based on income levels, health and education. Coyoacan was ranked sixth in education, fourth in income and fifth in health. In quality of life, which takes into account factors such as crime statistics, Coyoacan ranked second behind Benito Juarez in Mexico City. This ranks the quality of life as equivalent to that in developed countries. In 2004, Coyoacan was ranked the fifth most livable neighborhood in North America, ahead of Rittenhouse, Philadelphia and behind Camden, Maine. The borough contains 228 preschools, 227 primary schools, 103 middle schools, and 66 technical, preparatory and other high schools serving about 155,000 students. Illiteracy is lower here than in the rest of the Federal District at 1.9% for residents over the age of 15. About 55% of the population is of working age with less than 2% unemployed. 77.8% are employed in commerce and services, with 7% in industry; 44.8% of industrial jobs is related to pharmaceuticals with food processing accounting for 18.7%. However, industry accounts for 47.3% of the borough GDP, followed by services at 32.6% and commerce at 16.7%. As of 2004, the borough accounted for 4.1% of Mexico City’s total GDP, but its industry accounts for 21% of industrial GDP. Tourism is an important part of the borough commerce and services sector. However, there are only nine hotels rated with three stars or above.

Most of the borough located at 2240 meters above sea level with little variation. Minor elevations are located in Ciudad Universitaria, San Francisco Culuacán and Santa Úrusula Coapa. The most important elevation is in the far south called the Cerro del Zacatépel which rises to 2420masl. Parks and other green spaces cover 4,318,783.56m2 and can be found in most of the communities of the borough. Soil composition is of two types, of volcanic origin and the former lakebed of Lake Texcoco. Volcanic land is subdivided by volcanic rock which is decomposing and that which has not. The best known of the areas with still-hard lava rock is called the Pedregal, which covers the communities of the Ciudad Universitaria, the Pedregal de Carrasco, Santa Úrsula Coapa, Copilco el Alto, Viveros de Coyocan and the Villa de Coyoacán or historic center. The southeast of the borough is dominated by volcanic rock from an eruption of a now dormant volcano called Xitle. This lava bed covers the current communities of Colonia Santo Domingo, Colonia Ajusco and Pueblo de Santa Úrsula. Decomposing volcanic rock is mostly found by the former lake. The borough is part of the Pánuco River Basin, in the subregion of the Lake Texcoco Zumpango. The lake no longer exists except for a canal called the Canal Nacional which is on the east border. Two rivers pass through the territory called the Río Magdalena and Río Mixcoac. Both of these are almost fully encased in cement tubes as they pass through. These two rivers join to form the Río Churubusco on the border with Benito Juárez.

The borough is divided into 140 communities, classified as colonias, pueblos, unidades habitacionales and barrios. The oldest of these divisions are former villages which are distinguished by their colonial era churches and who still celebrate their feast of their patron saint much as they did when they were independent, with fireworks, masses, processions, folk and indigenous dance and more. A number of these villages also have certain unique traditions associated with these celebrations. These barrios and pueblos can still be somewhat distinguished by their narrow, winding roads and alleyways. Culturally, they are still distinguished by having their own histories and legends. Many of the old villages are linked by the old Calle Real, which was renamed Santa Catarina, then Benito Juarez and now Francisco Sosa. Today, this road extends from Plaza or Jardín Hidalgo to the Panzacola Bridge. This street used to have a trolley car that linked the historic center of Coyoacán with San Ángel and Churubusco. At first this trolley was pulled by mules, but later it was electrified. Sometime after that, it was replaced by modern busses. Another main road in the borough is La Higuera, which links Plaza Hidalgo which the La Conchita Plaza.

In additions to structures from the colonial era, Coyoacán has important structure from the 19th century, replicas of colonial and 19th century buildings constructed in the 20th century and modern buildings. In total, the borough contains 349 registered buildings of cultural or historic importance, with 157 of these in the historic center. Coyoacán was declared a “Zona Típica y Pintoresca del Distrito Federal” (Typical and Picturesque Zone of the Federal District) by INAH in 1934 due to is historical, cultural and artistic value. This declaration recognizes 278 buildings within the borough. This historic center has the most with fifty buildings on 86 blocks over 1.64km2.

Despite its rural past with villages and farmlands, today the borough is urban, with all of its territory paved and developed with the exception of parks and other reserved green spaces as it is completely integrated with the urban sprawl of Mexico City. This has brought a number of problems to the area. Traffic in Coyoacán is some of the worst in the city. While there are 70.7 km of primary roads through the borough, with 8,200,947m2 of pavement, many sections have maintained the narrow winding streets and plazas from its colonial past. These sections bring in a large number of visitors, especially on weekends and holidays, with these roads unable to cope with the volume of traffic and need for parking. Other issues are graffiti and vandalism, and other crimes, the most serious of which is theft/robbery, followed by assault. However, Coyoacán generates only 7.2% of all crime reports in Mexico City.

For long before it became a borough, the area was home to a number of small community and villages. Vestiges of a number of these communities can still be distinguished by street layouts and by customs and traditions which have survived. Many of the old villages, now called colonias, pueblos and barrios (roughly “neighborhood”) are linked by the old Calle Real, which was renamed Santa Catarina, then Benito Juarez and now Francisco Sosa. Today, this road extends from Plaza Hidalgo to the Panzacola Bridge in Santa Catarina. This street used to have a trolley car that linked the historic center of Coyoacán with San Ángel and Churubusco. At first this trolley was pulled by mules, but later it was electrified. Sometime after that, it was replaced by modern busses. Another main road in the borough is La Higuera, which links Plaza Hidalgo which the La Conchita Plaza in the La Concepción neighborhood. These two roads, along with other colonial-era roads still have structures which are centuries old. Another street with a number of country mansions and homes is Calle de Fernandez Leal, mostly built at the beginning of the 20th century. A film called “The Matador, with Pierce Brosnan and Greg Kinnear was filmed partly on the Plaza Santa Catarina.

La Concepción

One neighborhood which is as old as the historic center is the La Concepción or La Conchita neighborhood (Barrio de la Concepción), an area where the Spanish conquistadors settled in the 1520s. The neighborhood centers on a small plaza with a church just southeast of Villa Coyoacán or the historic center. This main chapel and plaza are called the Purísima Concepción Chapel and the Plaza de la Conchita. This plaza is surrounded by very small streams still fed by a spring called Los Camilos. It is thought that Los Camilos once provided potable water to Tenochitlan. According to INAH, the plaza was a pre-Hispanic ceremonial center, upon which Cortés had this chapel built. The first Catholic mass in Mexico City was celebrated here and according to tradition, Hernán Cortés’ lover and translator, La Malinche, prayed here. The official name of the building is the Purísima Concepción Chapel, but its more common name is La Conchita, a nickname for “Concepción” (literally, “the little shell”).

The feast day for this neighborhood is 8 December. The façade of the La Conchita Church is decorated with a large flower portal, usually donated by a sister community of Coyoacán such as Los Reyes or La Candelaria. The festival begins with chamber music and then the patron image of the Virgin Mary is “awakened” with the song Las Mañanitas as she is surrounded by numerous floral arrangements for mass. On the plaza in front of the church, wind bands play while participants share tamales and atole. Later in the night, student musical groups perform callejoneadas where they roam the streets playing music as a traveling party.

Most of the area’s oldest buildings are located on this plaza, Calle Fernando Sosa, which leads to Villa Coyoacán and Calle Fernandez Leal. The Casa Colorada or Casa de la Malinche is located on a corner of the Plaza La Conchita, but it is not open to the public. It is said that Cortés built it for La Malinche, and historians believe Cortés had his Spanish wife, Catalina Juárez de Marcaida, murdered there. In spite of the house’s historic and aesthetic value, it receives little attention. The reason for this is that La Malinche is often blamed for the downfall of the Aztec Empire, acting as a traitor to her own people.

La Casa de los Padres Camilos (The House of the Camillo Priests) is on Calle Fernandez Leal in the Barrio de la Concepción. This structure was part of a farm and hospice which was owned by a Camillian religious order. The brothers cultivated a number of crops including fruit trees and flowers. Today the main house is used for commercial purposes but the building retains many of its original architectural details. It is a small stone-block building with a door made of black stone. A hall was added in the early 1900s. Opposite the Casa de los Camilos is the Jardín Frida Kahlo which has a statue of the painter and a fountain.

Santa Catarina

The Santa Catarina neighborhood is home to a large number of Coyoacán’s landmarks. It is located just west of the Plaza del Centenario along Calle Francisco Sosa. It is a small square with a bright yellow chapel named the Capilla de Santa Catarina. This chapel was built for use by the indigenous population in the very early colonial period. The building today conserves some of the original built in the 1520s when it was originally built as an open chapel, and ornamental work done in the mid 17th century, when the nave with cannon vault was added. Later a tower and a linterna were added, but these fell in the 1985 earthquake. Inside there are 400-year-old murals. It was declared a National Monument in 1932. There are also several restored colonial era houses around it. On one side, there is Casa de Cultura de Coyacán which hold art and cultural events. Once part of a hacienda, behind the building there are large gardens filled with vegetation.

The Dolores del Río House is located on Salvador Novo Street in Barrio de Santa Catarina. It is also known as “La Econdida” (The Hidden One), where Mexican actress Dolores del Río lived. It is neo-Colonial in design when it was built for her, but it has since been remodeled and has a more modern appearance. It still functions as a private residence.

The Miguel Angel de Quevedo House is on Francisco Sosa Street in Barrio de Santa Catarina. It is a very large structure for the area, filled with trees and plants both inside and out. Originally, these gardens were watered with river flow from the Río Magdalena, but this river is no longer accessible because it is encased. It is still used as a residence.

The Casa del Indio Fernández House is located on Dulce Oliva Street in Barrio de Santa Catarina. The house was constructed over twenty years by architect Manuel Parra for Mexican filmmaker Emilio “Indio” Fernández, who died in the house in 1986. The house is colonial in style with a facade constructed from volcanic rock. Today it belongs to Fernandez’s daughter, Adela.

The Casa de Cultura Jesús Reyes Heroles is located on Francisco Sosa, named after a historian and political scientist from Veracruz. The house is on a property, which was called Izotitlán, meaning “izotes” a type of wild palm to make hats. In the colonial period, the house belonged to Juan de Luis Celis who had a small paper factory. It changed hands several times by the 20th century, but all this time, the structure kept its original appearance including very old atrium cross in the first courtyard. In the 1940s, it was enlarged, but its colonial style was respected. The building gained its current function in 1985, when President Miguel de la Madrid donated the house and lands to create a cultural center. Today, the center has three art galleries, named after Alfredo Ramos Martinez, Guillermo Kahlo and Miguel Alvarez Acosta to house temporary exhibits, an area to teach the culinary arts and two multiuse rooms. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Casa de Cultura Jesús Reyes Heroles was inhabited by María Concepción Armida, who is being considered for beatification by the Catholic Church. It is said that she performed a number of miracles in this house. Behind this house is the Callejón del Aguacate, which is said to be haunted by the ghost associated with the woman, and local school children are known to go looking for the ghost.

The San José del Altillo Church is located on the corner of Avenida Universidad and Miguel Angel de Quevedo. This area was once the El Altillo Hacienda. This hacienda was donated by its last owner, Aguayo Piña to the Misioneros del Espíritu Santo religious order in the very early 19th century. Here they founded the Centro de Espiritualidad San José del Altillo spiritual center. Today, the church site has a modern structure on it, built by architect Enrique de la Mora.

According to legend, the San Antonio Panzacola Chapel was built by the mother of a group of smugglers to fulfill a promise or to offer gratitude. It is also said that it was the transfer point and a customs checkpoint for goods heading from Coyoacan and San Angel to Mexico City.

The Casa Alvarado is now the home of the Fonoteca National or National Sound Library. Octavio Paz died here in 1998.

The “Alfredo Guati Rojo” National Watercolor Museum is dedicated to watercolor paintings. It was founded by Cuernavaca-born watercolor artist Alfredo Guati in 1967. Originally located in Colonia Roma, it was moved to its current location near Santa Catarina after the 1985 earthquake.

Colonia del Carmen

Colonia del Carmen was not a village in the past. It was built in 1890 and named in honour of Carmen Romero, the wife of then president Porfirio Díaz, and it is best known for having several of the borough’s museums and other landmarks. The Del Carmen colonia has had an intellectual and vanguard reputation since the 1920s, when it was the home of Salvador Novo, Octavio Paz, Mario Moreno and Dolores del Río. The Frida Kahlo Museum, popularly called “La Casa Azul” (The Blue House) is one of the most popular sites in Coyoacán. It is a deep blue house on Londres Street, built in the early 20th century in which Frida Kahlo was born in 1907 and in which she spent the last thirteen years of her life. The house contains a selection of Kahlo’s personal art collection and a large collection of pre-Hispanic artifacts, Mexican folk art (mostly indigenous inspired jewelry and clothes which she wore) and works by José María Velasco, Paul Klee and Diego Rivera. The museum also contains a café and a small gift shop. The Kahlo pieces are some of her minor works and include El Marxismo Dará la Salud, which shows her casting away her crutches. There is an unfinished portrait of Joseph Stalin, who became a hero to Kahlo after Rivera had a falling out with Russian Communism theorist Leon Trotsky. In this portrait, Stalin stands before a wheelchair. The folk art collection contains Rivera’s collection of retablos.

The Leon Trotsky Museum is located near the Frida Kahlo Museum. Trotsky was forced into exile in 1929 by Josef Stalin and in 1937, due to efforts by Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo, he was granted asylum in Mexico. At first, Trotsky and his wife lived in the La Casa Azul with Frida, but after a falling out with Diego Rivera, the couple moved to this house on Viena Street in 1938. The house looks like a fortress, and it was fortified to protect Trotsky from assassins. It has high outer walls and watchtowers once occupied by armed guards. Inside, there is a small house and garden. The house and garden were original with the defenses added later after an attack led by David Alfaro Siqueiros, who shot up the house. Trotsky and his wife survived by hiding under furniture. The bullet holes from this attack remain on the outer walls of the house.

However, in 1940, a Spanish Stalin supporter by the name of Ramón Mercader managed to gain entry to the house and to kill Trotsky with a mountaineer’s ice axe. The room in which Trotsky was killed remains exactly as it was at that moment, including the papers and the books in their exact positions. As a museum, some other buildings were added along the walls which contain photos from Trotsky’s lifetime, biographical notes in Spanish and memorabilia such as Trotsky trademark small round glasses. In the garden, there is a tomb which contains Trotsky’s and his wife’s ashes. The complex also houses the Instituto del Derecho de Asilo y las Libertades Públicas (Institute for the Right of Asylum and Public Liberties) which was founded in 1990 and the Rafael Galván Library, which contains a collection of books with social themes. These organizations occasionally sponsor events such as expositions and conferences.

The Escuela Superior de Música (Higher School of Music) on Fernández Leal Street in Colonia Del Carmen is an imitation of the house occupied by Shakespeare’s Othello. It stands out due to its many stained glass windows with Arab phrases inscribed against a stucco facade. This school used to be a pulqueria called La Rosita, which was frequented by intellectuals in the area. When this bar was demolished, it took with it a mural done by Diego Rivera.

The La Capilla Theater is on Madrid Street in Colonia Del Carmen. This building was part of the ruins on a portion of an old hacienda purchased by Salvador Novo around 1950. In the ruins of this structure he visualized a theater and hired Alejandro Prieto to make the adaptation. This theater was opened to the public in 1953 along with a restaurant called El Reflectorio alongside. Later a bar called El Habito, today called El Vicio was added. The theater remains as one of the more important cultural venues in the borough.

The Juárez Institute is located on the corner of Cuauhtemoc and Abasolo Streets. It was built in the 19th century. Originally, this was part of a Presbyterian church complex, but this church has since moved to another location on Cuauhtemoc street. Today, it houses an educational institution. The building is two floors, with a sober facade made of stone and brick. The sides are framed by sandstone, with the main entrance on Cuauhtemoc. The interior has a large courtyard which contains gardens.

The Coyoacan Market was built in 1956 by Pedro Ramírez Vázquez in a Functionalist style on a site which originally was stables and horse corrals.

Churubusco

The Churubusco neighborhood has the historic Dieguinos monastery located near the ancient road to Iztapalapa. In the pre-Hispanic period, this area was a small island, which was called Teopanzolco, at the juncture of Lake Texcoco and Lake Xochimilco . In the 17th century, the Spanish built the monastery of Churubusco over a ceremonial site dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli. This monastery complex is best known for its role during the Mexican-American War. The Mexicans, aided by the “Saint Patrick’s Battalion”, a military unit composed of catholic immigrants (mainly Irish), had fortified the monastery and fought until they ran out of ammunition and then beaten only after hand-to-hand combat. When U.S. General David Twiggs asked Mexican General Pedro María de Anaya to surrender his ammunition, the reply is said to have been “If there were any, you would not be here.” There is a memorial to this event outside the main entrance and a plaque commemorating the “Irish martyrs”. The monastery’s church still retains its original function, but the most of the rest of the complex is now the Museo Nacional de las Intervenciones. The collection includes an American map of the facility from 1847, artifacts from the French Intervention in Mexico and a plot by Henry Lane Wilson to bring down the government of Francisco I. Madero in 1913.

The Casa de Cristo (House of Christ) is located on Heroes Street in Churubusco. It was constructed in 1906 as a residence for Bertha Vizcayno de Vergara who remained there until 1967. Today, it is still private property but is used as a restaurant. It has three floors and twelve rooms, with walls of brick and limestone and wood roof decorated with tiles. The front has sandstone Ionic columns. The name comes from the inscription of “Casa de Cristo” over the main entrance.

Pueblo de los Reyes, La Candelaria and other traditional “barrios”

While lacking in landmarks, La Candelaria and Los Reyes are considered to be the two most traditional communities in the borough, with mostly religious traditions that extend back into the colonial period. Much of Los Reyes’ traditions revolve around a crucifix imaged called the Señor de las Misericordias. According to legend, sometime in the 18th century, residents of Santiago Zapotitlan, today in Tlahuac borough, were carrying the image to Mexico City for restoration. Upon encountering a business producing pulque, they decided to go inside after leaving the image in a supposedly secure place. When they were done drinking, they could not find the image where they left it or anywhere nearby. A few days later a “tlachiquero” (one who takes nectar out of maguey plants) heard a child’s cry in the area and found the image. Word went out to try to find which church the image belonged to. Representatives of various communities come to claim it, but none could lift the image. When it was the turn of the Pueblo de los Reyes, they prayed that the image would be light as a feather for them and the easily lifted it. The returned home joyous to have been chosen by the image. Later, representatives of Santiago Zapotitlan came to reclaim the image, but again it became too heavy to lift and it has remained in the church ever since. The festival called the Recibimiento del Señor de las Misericordia occurs in September in both Los Reyes and La Candelaria. It celebrates the arrival of the image according to the legend. From June until September, the image is sent out to visit various communities in the borough. During the ceremony to return the image to its home church, the people of La Candelaria bring the image and the people of Los Reyes receive it with much fanfare.
Templo de los Santos Reyes, dressed for the 6th January festivities

On 6 January in the Pueblo de los Reyes, the main square of the community is decorated with flower portals and “carpets” made by carefully arranging colored sawdust on the ground. There are also processions and a ceremony called the “vítor” used to announce coming of the festival. Reeds are cut and decorated with multicolored crepe paper and half inflated balloons and then are given to children as they pass by on the streets. There is also a parade that features “mojigangas” which are large structures made of cardboard and paper in the shape of human figures. These are hollow and placed on the shoulders of parade participants. An image of the Nativity and the Three Wise Men is carried through the town on a truck from which bags of candies are tossed to children.

The image for the La Candelaria neighborhood is an image of the Virgin Mary called the “Virgen de la Candelaria.” The feast day for this image occurs on 2 February in the Pueblo de la Candelaria. This event is organized by a “mayordomo” who is chosen each year and last for ten days. It includes religious activities such as a novena and a special Mass. It also includes cultural, sporting and recreational activities, which also gives the event the alternate name of “La Semana Cultural de La Candelaria” (Culture Week of La Candelaria). During Holy Week, La Candelaria holds a passion play which runs about 4 km from the main plaza to the Huayamilpas Ecological and Recreational Park.

The feast day of Francis of Asisi, patron of the Barrio Cuadrante de San Francisco is announced by a band playing wind instruments playing through the streets. In addition to more common elements, the celebration also includes the lighting of the candle of three large wooden crosses, performed by groups performing indigenous dances such as Concheros. The crosses are eventually surrounded by a multitude of candles in the night as people pray. The origin of this tradition is unknown.

The feast day of Saint Ursula, patroness of Santa Ursula Coapa last for about a week. The first three days are dedicated to 40 hours of prayer. Other religious events include processions on Calzada de Tlalpan and the blessing of taxi drivers. Cultural and recreational activities include a marathon, fireworks, including those on large frames called “toritos” (little bulls) and “castillos” (castles), indigenous and folk dancing including Concheros, Santiagueros and Chinelos, and music played by wind bands especially from neighboring Tepepan and San Lucas Xochimanca.

Other traditional neighborhoods include San Lucas, San Mateo, El Niño Jesús, San Francisco and San Antonio. The San Lucas and San Mateo barrios are sliced through by small arroyos and used to be surrounded by cornfields and pastures for cattle. The El Niño Jesús and San Francisco barrios and filled with very winding alleyways over black volcanic rock, called pedregal, from an ancient eruption of Xitle. These two are separated from the historic center by Avenida Miguel A de Quevedo. The San Antonio barrio is very small with an equally small chapel by the name of San Antonio Panzacola. This chapel belonged to the Carmelites and is located alongside an old stone bridge over the Río Magdalena.

The name comes from the Nahuatl original “Coyohuacán”. It is most often translated as “place of coyotes” but other possible translations such as “skinny coyote” and “place of wells” and “land of the water of the jackal or coyote” have also been proposed. The area’s Nahuatl glyph prominently depicts the figure of a coyote in profile, with its tongue hanging out and down halfway across the body where it curls. This tongue position often indicates hunger or thirst, but can also indicate tiredness. This glyph was likely devised when the pre-Hispanic settlement was founded around the 10th and 12th century.

In the pre-Hispanic period, Coyoacán was originally an independent dominion or altepetl. It was a major center of trade on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco. Its people were Tecpanecas, who were farmers and stoneworkers specializing in the volcanic stone from the old lava flow of Xitle. It had been a Tepaneca dominion for 300 years until the Aztecs took over in the 15th century. Famous rulers were Maxtla and his son Tecollotzin.

The Aztecs gave the area its current name; however their rule was hated by the native Tepanecas, who welcomed Hernán Cortés and the Spanish, allowing them to use this southern port on Lake Texcoco as a headquarters during the conquest of Tenochtitlan.

After the Aztec capital was destroyed, Cortés remained in Coyoacan and made it the first capital of New Spain from 1521 to 1523. During the colonial period, the village remained independent of Mexico City, separated by farmland and lakes, filled with haciendas and monasteries. This allowed the area to maintain many of its plazas and narrow cobblestone streets to this day. During the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth, there was an active Spanish land market in Coyoacan, with many bills of sale in Nahuatl found in the archives. Rebecca Horn found over 100 such bills of sale naming Nahua men and women selling to Spaniards. Natives also dictated last wills and testaments in Nahuatl the colonial era, which further contribute to our understanding of continuities and changes in Nahuas’ situation in the colonial era. The altepetl (town) of Coyoacan continued to assess tribute on the basis of the size of a person’s land holdings long after Spaniards had switched to a head tax. The earliest extant native pictorial of Coyoacan, the so-called Códice de Coyoacan, dating from a 1553 visita (inspection) gives a baseline for tribute and labor.

One important monastery was the Churubusco monastery, at which the Battle of Churubusco took place on August 20, 1847, during the Mexican-American War. Ten years later, the area became part of the Federal District of Mexico City when it was expanded by the 1857 Constitution .

From the rest of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th, Coyoacan remained separate from Mexico City proper, keeping its rural reputation and gaining one for cantinas and pulque bars. During the Mexican Revolution, Victoriano Huerta was sometimes found in cantinas here, proclaiming that the “only foreigners welcome (in Mexico) were Hennessy and Martell.”

The historic center and other villages were linked to each other and Mexico City proper by rail lines and trolleys. The rail line linked Mexico City and the historic center from the 1860s to the early 1900s. Many of the old villages were linked by a trolley on Santa Catarina Road, now Francisco Sosa. This trolley was initially pulled by mules but later it became electrified. In the 1920s, areas of the borough became a magnet for artists and intellectuals after being promoted by Francisco Sosa. Over time, it attracted names such as Salvador Novo, Octavio Paz, Mario Moreno (aka Cantínflas), and Dolores del Río, exiles such as Leon Trotsky and Romania’s King Carl, as well as its two most famous residents, Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo. Leon Trotsky lived close by Rivera and Kahlo and was murdered by one of Stalin’s agents. Rivera and Kahlo’s presence gave the area a bohemian reputation. In 1923, the Escuela de Pintura al Aire Libre (Open Air School of Painting) was established at the former San Pedro Martír Hacienda, establishing the area as an artists’ enclave. From the 1920s to the 1940s, the area was a mix of rural farms and upper-class families who were building mansions and country homes. In the 1930s, Attending mass on Sundays was a must although attendance was segregated by social class and age. It was commons for the youth to go to the Cine Centenario movie theatre (now a Sanborns) after Mass. Some youths, called “Vanguardias” preferred to meet on Thursdays and Sundays in private home to watch alternative films such as documentaries and animated features. Other forms of entertainment included picking fruit from trees or horse racing on Xicotencatl Street. The main street market, or tianguis, for the area was called Luis Mondragón, which installed each Friday where the Coyoacan gymnasium is now, selling food stuffs, domestic animals and other necessities. There were also about 25 pulque bars or pulquerías.

Absorption into the Distrito Federal and twentieth- and twenty-first century developments

The area was officially designated the Mexico City borough of Coyoacán in 1928. By the mid 20th century, the urban sprawl of Mexico City began to envelop the borough, much as it was doing to other former villages and municipalities in the Federal District such as Tacuba, Tacubaya, Mixcoac and others. The rural economy gave way as fields and orchards were built over, as well as the remaining lake and conifer forests. This has deforested the area and depleted the soil leaving very little wildlife. There have been efforts to cultivate human-planted forests, mostly of eucalyptus and other trees in areas such as Zacatépetl, which had been completely deforested.

This integration into the city proper has brought with it big city problems. The first is that redevelopment will take over areas which still maintain some of their rural or village feel, which has happened in other formerly independent communities. In 2008, neighborhood groups worked against the construction of new apartment complexes in the borough in order to halt further urbanization. The area’s popularity, both as a place to live and as a place to visit on weekends, along with its narrow winding streets has caused it to have some of the worst traffic problems in the city, with traffic jams and parking problems. In spite of the fact that there are six parking garages in the historic center, drivers in the area still jockey for spaces on the street. The six public garages are always full. This makes for big business for establishments which offer valet parking and for franeleros. Franeleros are people who illegally take over public street parking and charge for it. The “franeleros” charge to “take care of vehicle” but also threaten to damage those who refuse to pay. There are an estimated 250 franeleros working the borough, and in 2010, the city government proposed regulating them instead of eliminating them, which the residents of Coyoacan and neighboring San Angel have strongly rejected. One last issue is the proliferation of unauthorized street vendors and tianguis markets.

During the 2000s, the city and borough have done major rehabilitation and reconstruction work in the borough, especially in the historic center, renovating plazas, colonial buildings and streets. This work moved to areas in and around the Plaza Hidalgo and Plaza del Centenario in 2008, with the main goals being the redesign of the plazas, the renovation of the Parish of San Juan Bautista and the removal of street stalls in and around the plazas. Opposition to the removal of the vendors came not only from the vendors themselves, but also from some neighborhood groups and local businesses who feared their removal would hurt tourism. In March 2008, the two plazas were closed off by authorities for renovation work, forcing the removal of more than 500 street stalls for renovation of the two plazas and the streets around them costing 88.3 million pesos. When the plazas reopened in 2009, there were confrontations between the vendors and authorities, both on the plazas with police and in the courts, despite the fact that the borough built a nearby bazaar on Felipe Carrillo Puerto. Vendor’s groups eventually obtained a court order to allow for about forty vendors in the plazas, citing the 25 years or so when about 150 vendors were tolerated on the premises, even though this order is opposed by residents’ groups. As of 2010, most vendors remain off the two plazas proper.

In 2010, the borough hosted an event in the Jardín Hidalgo where the Guinness Record for largest mug of hot chocolate in the world was broken.

The Ciudad Universitaria (University City) is UNAM’s main campus. Designed by architects Mario Pani and Enrique del Moral, it was built in the 1950s to move the university from the scattered colonial buildings in the historic center of Mexico City. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007. The Biblioteca Central (Central Library) is a large rectangular prism in the center of the campus. It was built by Gustavo Saavedra, Juan Martínez and Juan O’Gorman. O’Gorman was in charge of decorating the four sides with multicolored mosaics of stone pieces brought from all parts of Mexico. The murals relate to the history of Mexico. The north side reflects the pre-Hispanic period; the south reflects the colonial period and the east is from the modern period. The west side is meant to represent Mexico today with the coat of arms of the university in the center with José Vasconcelos’ motto of “Por mi raza hablará mi espíritu” (For my race, speaks my spirit.). These mosaics are the largest of their type in the world.

The Torre de Rectoría (Dean’s Tower) is the main administration building for UNAM. It was designed by Mario Pani, Enrique del Moral and Salvador Ortega as a tower of glass and marble, decorated with three-dimensional murals by David Alfaro Siqueiros, mixing painting and sculpting. The north side has a piece entitled “El Pueblo a la Universidad y la Universidad al pueblo” (People to the University and University to the People). The work on the south side is called “Estudiantes que extiende sus brazos a la cultura” (Students who extend their arms to culture). On the east side is an unfinished work related to the culture of Mexico.

The Centro Cultural Universitario was built between 1976 and 1980 by engineers and architects of the school headed by Arcadio Artis Espiritu and Orso Nuñez Ruiz Velasco. It was created to house facilities related to various art forms and by artists from all over the world as well as Mexico. It is built over volcanic rock, oriented north-south and is surrounded by desert vegetation. The main entrance on Avenida Insurgentes contains a mural by Carlos Mérida. The complex contains the National Library and National Periodical Collection, the Instituto de Estudio Bibliográficos, the Coordinacion de Diffusion Cultural and the Julio Torre Bookstore/Café.

The Estadio Olímpico México 68 is the main sports facility built for the Olympic Games of 1968 held in Mexico City. It was constructed to simulate a volcanic cone with a wide crater. The high relief decoration in the front was designed by Diego Rivera and created as a mosaic using naturally colored stones. Today, the stadium is the home of the Pumas professional soccer team.

The Sala Nezahualcóyotl is a concert hall and the main site for the UNAM philharmonic orchestra. The building was inaugurated in 1976. It was designed acoustically to allow the orchestra to be in the center of the hall and seats 2311 people around a 240m2 stage.

The Sala Migual Covarrubias y Carlos Chávez is used primarily for dance recitals but has also hosted operatic events, musical theater, and stage plays.

The Juan Ruiz de Alarcón Theater and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Forum were both inaugurated in 1979 as space for cultural events under the same roof. They have a capacity of 430 and 120 spectators respectively. The Forum does not define stage and audience space so that the facility can be adapted to a number of different arrangements. The stage of the Theatre, with its 12-meter walls, can be disassembled partially or fully.

The Espacio Escultórico or Sculpture Space is a monumental sculpture made of 64 stone triangular blocks arranged in a circle such that from above, it looks like a crown. Inside this space is exposed naturally occurring volcanic stone. The outside of the sculpture retains its natural vegetation. The idea is to combine nature and art and represents the cosmology of pre-Hispanic Mexico.

The Universum Museo de Ciencias is an interactive museum with 315 exhibits related to the natural and physical sciences. Halls are named for mathematics, chemistry, energy, biological diversity, agriculture and food, ecology, human biology and health, Science in the big city, animal behavior and society and more.

Running across the borough from the east end and ending in the west near the university campus is Avenida Miguel Angel de Quevedo. This street is lined with bookstores, such as Nalanda, El Sotano de Coyoacan, “Octavio Paz” and two branches of the Gandhi chain. The first was one of the Gandhi stores, placed in 1973 at the site of a former supermarket. The bookstores are here because the area is close to the Ciudad Universitaria and the student population that lives in the area. The bookstores have attracted other cultural businesses such as theaters cafes and restaurants. The second Gandhi store, called Gandhi 2000, was built to be a cultural center as well as a bookstore with literature related events, children’s activities, concerts and more. It also has a series of nude sculpture by Gabriel Ponzanelli.

Ciudad Universitaria is very large, so you might need a Ciudad Universitaria’s map.

The Viveros de Coyoacán is located on the west side of the borough just north of the Ciudad Universitaria. This land once belonged to Miguel Angel de Quevedo, but they were nationalized under President Venustiano Carranza and today it serves as a park and a plant nursery for trees used in reforestation projects. It is the first plant nursery of its kind in Mexico. Today, it not only germinates and grows trees for reforestation projects, it is considered to be one of Mexico City’s “lungs.” This and other areas serve to recharge aquifers and add oxygen to the air. In the past, this park was also home to the first Escuela Nacional de Tauromaquia (National School of Bullfighting) .

Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Arts Center) is located on Avenida Rio Churubusco just east of Calazada de Tlalpan. It contains the Blas Galindo Auditorium, the Teatro de las Artes, two other theaters, the national music conservatory as well as schools of theater, dance, cinema, painting, sculpture and engraving. The building is modern. It has a bookstore and art materials shop open to the public.

Anahuacalli is a museum designed by Diego Rivera to house his personal collection of pre-Hispanic art. It also contains some of his own work as well. The building is towering and fortress-like made of volcanic stone, incorporating stylistic features from several pre-Hispanic cultures. The name means “house of Anáhuac” Anáhuac was the Nahuatl name for the Valley of Mexico. The exhibits are mostly pottery and stone figures and other pieces chosen for their artistic value. Rivera’s works on display are murals on the walls and ceilings, studies of major murals done in other locations such as El Hombre en el Cruce de los Caminos, which reflects the original El Hombre, Controlador del Universo, which is in the Palacio de Bellas Artes.

The Casa del Sol (House of the Sun) was constructed by the Aguilar and Quevedo families. In this house, Venustiano Carranza composed the Constitution of 1917. Legend says it was originally a country home for Miguel Angel de Quevedo. Today it is a privately owned building with a restaurant and catering business.

The Casa de Cultura Raúl Anguiano is located in the Pedregal area on a property with a 2 hectare lake. It is named after a Mexican artist whose work reflected the country’s political and artistic history. The Casa de Cultura Ricardo Flores Magón was opened in 1986 with the name of Casa del Pueblo. Its currently named after a journalist and ideologue from the Mexican Revolution. This building is one of the few built specifically to be a cultural center to serve the eastern side of the borough, which is densely populated due to apartment complexes such as the CTM Infonavit Culhuacan and the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria. The building contains a stage theater, a multipurpose room, an open-air theater and a library. Other museums in the borough include the Museo de Arte Escultórico Geles Cabrera on Xicotencatl Street in Colonia del Carmen, the Museo del Automóvil on Avenida Division del Norte in Pueblo de San Pablo Tepetlapa, the Museo del Retrato Hablado on Avenida Universidad in Colonia del Carmen, Museo Cultural de las Artes Graficas on Calzada de Tlapan in Barrio de San Diego Churubusco and the Museo Alejandro Galindo on Avenida Santa Úrsula in Colonia Santa Úrsula. Other theaters includeTeatro Rafael Solana on Miguel Angel de Quevedo in Barrio del Cuadrante de San Francisco, Foro de la Conchita Forum on Vallara in the center, the Teatro Santa Catarina in Barrio Santa Catarina, the Teatro Coyoacan /Foro Rodolfo Usigli on Heroes Street in Barrio de San Mateo Churubusco, Teatro La Capilla on Madrid in Colonia del Carmen, Centro Nacional de las Artes in Calzada de Tlalpan in Colonia Country Club.

Estadio Azteca, located in the Santa Ursula area, is the home of the Club América and Mexican national soccer teams. It is also used for other events, including concerts, and hosted two FIFA World Cups. The rivalry is known as the Clasico Capitalino is centered around the Coyoacan borough, as the home stadiums for both America and the Pumas are within a few miles of each other.

What is now called “Tlalpan center” or sometimes “the historic center of Tlalpan” began as a pre-Hispanic village located at the intersection of a number of roads that connected Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) with points south. This village was renamed Villa de San Agustín de las Cuevas in 1645, with the last part “de las Cuevas” referring to the many small caves in the area. During the colonial period, the village was a modest farming village, known for its fruit orchards. However, the forests of the area made it attractive to the elite of Mexico City who built country homes and haciendas here, much as they did in other areas south of the city such as Chimalistac, San Ángel and Coyoacán .

Many of these homes and manor houses of the former haciendas still remain in and round Tlalpan center. As the urban sprawl of Mexico City only began to reach this area starting in the mid-twentieth century, much of the former village has retained its provincial streets, older homes and other buildings with façades of reds, whites, blues and other colors, although a number have been converted into other uses such as cafes, restaurants and museums. This makes the area similar to neighboring Coyoacán, and like this neighbor, Tlalpan center is popular with visitors, especially on weekends as people come to see its provincial main square/garden, mansions, narrow winding cobblestone streets lined with large trees, eat in its restaurants and cafes and visit its many nearby parks and other green areas. One popular area with cafes and restaurants is La Portada, on one side of the main plaza.

Tlalpan center has eighty structures from the 16th to the 20th centuries that have been classified by INAH as having historic value. Some of these include old Tlalpan Hacienda, the former home of the Marquis de Vivanco and the San Agustin parish church. The borough of Tlalpan has sought World Heritage Site status for the area because of these structures, the area’s history and the nearby site of Cuicuilco.

The center of this former village is the main square or garden officially called the “Plaza de la Constitución” but better known as the “Jardín Principal” (Main Garden). Visually, what stands out is the large kiosk in the center, but historically more important is the “Arbol de los colgaldos” (Tree of the Hanged). This tree, still alive, was used to hang political enemies and bandits, including those opposed to the invading French Army during the French Intervention in Mexico. On weekends, vendors set up stalls selling handcrafts and other items. To one side of the plaza, there is a cantina called La Jalisciense, one of the oldest in Mexico City, having been in operation for over 135 years.

Facing the Jardín Principal, there is the “Palacio de Gobierno” (Government Palace), which was the site of the government of the State of Mexico, when Tlalpan served as state capital for six years in the early 19th century. Since then, it was used as a barracks for Benito Juárez’s soldiers, a jail, a residence for the Empress Carlota and the site of the Instituto Literario (today the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) . Today, it serves as the headquarters of the borough, although it is also commonly referred to as the “ex palacio municipal” (former municipal palace) referring to the time when Tlalpan was an independent municipality in the State of Mexico. The current structure was built between 1989 and 1900 in Neoclassical style.

On another side of the main square, there is the San Agustin Church. The village church was established here in 1547 by the Dominicans, but the current structure on the site dates from the 18th century. It has an austere façade and faces the main square. Around it is an atrium, some simple gardens and a patios shaded by fruit trees. A fire at the end of the 19th century destroyed the Baroque altar, replaced with the sober one seen today. This parish is the site of the annual San Agustin de las Cuevas Festival, which is the largest religious event in the borough.

Casa Frissac is located just off the main square. It was built in the 19th century in French style as the residence of Jesús Pliego Frissac. According to local legend, bandit Chucho el Roto lived here at one time. In the 20th century, it belonged to Adolfo López Mateos then it became the site of the Lancaster School, which closed in the 1980s. In the 1950s, it was used as a set for the film Los Olvidados, by Luis Buñuel. Today, the house is still the protagonist for a number of local ghost stories; however, its official function is that of a cultural center called the Instituto Javier Barros Sierra. This center began operations in 2001 after 21,800,000 pesos worth of remodeling, which restored the structure to much of its 19th-century look. The center has hosted art exhibits by photographers, graffiti artists, and more—many with a political message. While the center’s authorities insist the center is non-political, members of Mexico’s PAN party raised objections to the content in the center’s first year.

The Museo de Historia de Tlalpan (Museum of the History of Tlalpan, is housed in a building known as “La Casona” (The Mansion), which dates to 1874. In addition to its age, one of its claims to fame is that it is the site of the first long distance telephone call in Mexico, calling a telephone in the then-separate Mexico City. This call was made on 20 March 1878 and the telephone used to make the call is on display here. The mansion was classified as a historic monument by 1986, and it was converted into the current museum in 2003 after extensive remodeling, which included restoration of the original murals. The museum explores the culture and history of the Tlalpan borough. It also has a permanent collection of art work by Gilberto Aceves Navarro, Alberto Castro Leñero, Isabel Leñero, Javier Anzure Joëlle Rapp and Jorge Hernandez.

The museum was opened to be part of a “cultural circuit” integrated with other facilities such as Casa Frissac. Prior to the opening of this museum, the only other museum (as opposed to a cultural center focused on classes) was the Museo Soumaya, which is private. Much of the museum’s collection of historic items was donated by over one hundred individual residents and include documents, photographs, artworks and more. These donations cover the eight rural “pueblos” in the Ajusco area, traditional barrios and the major apartment complexes in Coapa and San Lorenzo Huipulco as well as Tlalpan center. An organization called the Centro de Documentacion Historica de la Delegacion now accepts, organizes and cares for the borough collection of historic items.

Twenty blocks of Tlalpan center have been designated at the “Museo Público de Arte Contémporaneo de Tlalpan (MUPACT), an “open-air” museum of art, which opened in 2006 with eighteen works. The works are displayed on walls, trees, sidewalks and even streets. The borough offers a nominal fee for works selected to be displayed and requires that said works have a “strong social content.” One of the works that has been displayed was when artist Georgina Toussaint convinced the inmates of a Centro de Tratamiento de Varones to draw images of their identity and then displayed the works on the façade of the facility.

A major attraction of the center, not far from the square, is a manor house that belonged to the former Tlalpan Hacienda. The manor was constructed in 1737 around a central courtyard. Although the hacienda no longer exists, the structure is still surrounded by large gardens. The manor house is currently used as a luxury hotel and restaurant, although there are various salons available as well for events. When it was converted to its present use, it was remodeled in “Neo-Mexican” look with touches of Art Nouveau. The main restaurant offers traditional Mexican dishes with chiles en nogada, cabrito (roast goat), escamoles and duck as specialties. It has large gardens filled with peacocks. Much of the interior décor has been modeled in styles from the 19th century and earlier to evoke the grandeur of the area’s upper class of that time.

Scattered among the cobblestone streets of the old village are a number of other notable houses and structure from various centuries. The Casa Chata is on the corner of Hidalgo and Matamoros Streets. It was built in the 18th century, with one corner cut off, creating a small façade around the main entrance. The name refers to this feature as “chata” mean flattened, or pushed in. As Tlalpan was the capital of the State of Mexico for six years, a number of constructions related to this function, such as the Casa de Moneda (coin mint) and a government print shop were built and still remain. In the latter, Cuban writer José María Heredia published poems about his stay in Mexico.

Other religious institutions include the Convent of the Capuchinas, which is still functions as a convent, where one can buy cookies made by the resident nuns. There is also the Capilla del Calvario, which was built in the 17th century. The former house of the Count De Regla is found on Congreso Street, and on San Fernando Street, there is a house where José María Morelos y Pavón was held prisoner. Another house on this street was occupied by Antonio López de Santa Anna. A notable market in the area is the Mercado de la Paz, which was built in 1900.

This historic center was designated as a “Barrio Mágico” by the city in 2011.

Political divisions

Tlalpan is the largest of the Federal District of Mexico City’s sixteen boroughs, and vastly larger than the traditional village of Tlalpan. It has a surface of 310 km² and accounts for 20.6% of the Federal District, according to District authorities, and a total population of 650,567 inhabitants. It lies at the far south of the Federal District bordering the boroughs of Coyoacán, Xochimilco and Milpa Alta with the state of Morelos to the south and the State of Mexico to the southwest.

Administratively, the borough is divided into five zones: Centro de Tlalpan ( pop. 163,209), Villa Coapa(118,291), Padierna Miguel Hidalgo(148,582) Ajusco Medio (59,905) and Pueblos Rurales(99,447). All of these are divided into neighborhoods variously called “colonias,” “barrios,” “fraccionamientos” or “unidades habitacionales” with the exception of the Pueblo Rurales area, which also contains eight semi independent villages. The far northern zones such as Tlalpan Center, Villa Coapa, and Padierna Miguel Hidalgo are urbanized areas where the sprawl of the city has reach, which the southern sections are still rural. The urbanized areas account for only about 15% of the borough, with the rest belonging to conservation areas or ejido communal lands. Pueblos Rurales is the largest zone, but 83% of the borough population is concentrated in the other four.

Urban areas

The urban sprawl of Mexico City reached the borough of Tlalpan in the mid-20th century, but only the far north of the borough is urbanized. This area accounts for over 80% of the borough population, who live in a mix of middle class residential areas and large apartment complexes for the lower classes. This northern area is crossed by a number of major road arteries such as the Anillo Periférico, Calzada de Tlalpan, Viaducto-Tlalpan, Acoxpa, Division del Norte/Miramontes, which experience extremely heavy traffic during rush hour. The highway connecting Mexico City with Cuernavaca also passes through the borough. Intersections of these major roads have large commercial and retail complexes such as that of Avenida Insurgentes and Anillo Periferico, which has several of these complexes, as this is a major highway connection for the south of the city.

Traffic and parking are the most serious issues for the areas in the urban areas, as the borough struggles to keep up with the demand but also keep areas such as Tlalpan Centro at least somewhat provincial. Parking problems are greatest in Ajusco Medio, Padiernoa, Pedregales and Colonia Miguel Hidalgo. Traffic problems are worst in Tlalpan center where the narrow streets get jammed by the vehicles of both residents and visitors, especially around the main plaza. The increasing popularity of this area with visitors makes the situation worse on weekends. In the urban areas, problems are similar to that in other parts of Mexico City and include carjacking, illegal firearms, muggings, graffiti, deterioration of infrastructure. Most crime is reported in the Villa Coapa with Tlalpan center coming in second.

Rural communities

The rest of the borough is filled with forested areas, rugged mountains and small communities, some of which have had a way of life little changed since colonial times. The Pueblos Rurales Zone contains only about one sixth of the borough’s population, with the most important concentrations of people being the eight semi-independent communities. These villages are San Miguel Topilejo, San Pedro Mártir, San Andrés Totoltepec, San Miguel Xicalco, San Miguel Ajusco, Santo Tomás Ajusco, Magdalena Petlacalco, and Parres El Guarda.

These “pueblos” govern much of their local affairs through “usos y costumbres,” modern legal recognition of the old village governing structures still in place, many of which use some form of direct democracy. This is in stark contrast to areas such as Villa Coapa, where almost all local decisions are made by representatives. Because of the rugged terrain, few roads and little police protection, these settlements are isolated. While protected from some of crime problems that affect their urban counterparts, this isolation has made the area attractive for drug runners bringing their merchandise into Mexico City, for kidnappers, illegal logging and more, which has led to a number of murders in the area.

Many of high peaks between the borough and the State of Mexico are used as lookouts for criminal organizations. Because of this, the borough ranks ninth in criminal activity. The largest problem is illegal settlements. An estimated 191 forested and other areas have been taken over by about 8,000 families. Some of these communities are over twenty years old. Although some of the illegal construction represents individuals trying to claim a large tract, most of it is shantytowns for the poor with few or no services.

Tlalpan is located between the mountains that separate the Federal District from the states of Morelos and Mexico and the rocky areas of San Angel, Ciudad Universitaria and the delegation of Coyoacán. The south of the borough consists of the mountain ranges of Chichinautzin and Ajusco, which preserve most of the forested areas remaining in the Federal District. Fifteen of mountains in this area reach at least 3,000 masl, which include the two highest: Cruz del Marqués (3,930masl) and Pico del Aguila (3,880masl) . The borough, like the rest of the Valley of Mexico, lies on central part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt .

Much of the geology of the area formed when the Xitle volcano erupted in 100 CE, which created numerous caves and formed the basis of the volcanic soil that, 600 years later, makes the area’s agriculture so productive. The borough has two types of soil: rocky in higher elevations and—in lower areas—less solid and containing more groundwater, making it somewhat spongy. The area experiences regular seismic activity, mostly of low intensity, which is believed mostly from small ancient faults reactivated by regional stresses, or by the sinking of the Valley of Mexico. The south of the Valley, including Tlalpan, is also affected by the underground movement of magma, especially when such contacts the waterlogged regions of the former Lake Xochimilco. Most of these tremors go unnoticed except for those that occur close to the surface such as the one centered 5 km south of the Ciudad Universitaria on 16 October 2005 (mag. 3.1). However, even this one was not felt far from its epicenter. Three areas in the borough are susceptible to seismic activity over 7.5 on the Richter scale: Colonia Isidro Fabela, Villa Coapa, and Tlalpan Centro. These areas are subject to special building inspections and annual earthquake drills. The borough has a warmer and more humid climate than the rest of the Federal District.

As of 2010, 83.5% of the borough was officially defined as conservation space; however, the increase in illegal settlements and logging has been eroding this percentage. The forests are important to the Valley of Mexico/Mexico City as they not only release oxygen into the air, they are an important area for the recharge of the valley’s aquifers. Wells from this borough provide 70% of Mexico City’s potable water. The borough has 120 wells for potable water (out of a total of 450 in the District), which extract about 60 liters each second from each well. However, water shortages are relatively common in the borough proper. Most of this is due to the lack of wells, drilling equipment and pipelines to serve local residents, with the city authorities only reserving less than a fifth of its infrastructure budget for works in Tlalpan. One serious outage of water occurred in 2001 when thirty nine of the borough’s colonias were without dependable water for two weeks because of the lack of water reserves. Deforestation and other ecological damage make a number of areas susceptible to flooding during the rainy season from June to October. These include Anillo Periférico, Renato Leduc, Boulevard de la Luz and the Picacho Highway. Forest fires are a common problem not only in the Bosque de Tlalpan but also in Parque Fuentes Brotantes, Parque Ciudad de Mexico and the Cerro de Zacatepetl.

Tlalpan has some of the largest forested lands in the Federal District, with over 80% of this borough officially declared to be in conservation. However, only four percent of the borough is considered to be unharmed ecologically. The areas most affected by human activity are at the foot of the Xitle and Xictontle volcanos. The forest under protection in the borough equals 30,000 hectares but it is protected by only thirty-eight forest rangers, each with a territory of about 1,000 hectares of forest, canyons and volcanic areas. Three are provided by the Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente, fifteen from the Comisión de Recursos Naturales of the Federal District and twenty by the borough itself. These rangers work against illegal loggers, settlers and drug traffickers, who are often armed. The three main problems in the protected areas is illegal logging, the dumping of trash and rubble, squatting, and the theft of volcanic rock (for building materials). Most of the time, all the rangers can do is report the illegal activity to federal authorities but response is spotty.

The major problem is illegal settlements. In the entire Federal District there are over 800 illegal settlements which have some official recognition and occupy almost 60% of lands considered to be protected. These areas may hold as many as 180,000 residents who lack basic services, and cause grave ecological damage. These settlement make trees disappear and furthers urban sprawl. Erosion in conservation areas impedes aquifer recharge and disrupts the flow of surface water.

In Tlalpan, settlements are in Ajusco Medio, Pedregales and Padierna, where the mountainous terrain and/or volcanic rock severely limits the ability to provide services, often leading to residents creating septic pits. Since 2003, illegal settlements in Tlalpan have grown from 148(peligra), to 191 settlements that the government recognizes the existence of. Many settlements have occurred because communal owners of ejidos have illegally sold parts of their land at cheap prices to settlers on the outskirts of the city proper. Most illegal building is done by the very poor but there are also cases in which those which money illegally take over large sections of land for their own use. Illegal settlements have been made by individual families but increasingly developers are working to build illegal settlements in protected areas as well, by buying land and creating subdivisions with services, hoping to fix things with authorities later. In the early 2000s, the borough conducted over 125 operations to evict illegal settlements, dismantling over 440 housing units, but since 2005, the borough no longer has the authority to do this. Many of these illegal settlements seek and then get court orders prohibiting their removal and demanding services, first potable water then drainage.

To moderate the damage, there have been both public and private reforestation efforts. In 2005, forty families worked to plant 1,000 new trees in the Bosque de Tlalpan as part of an annual event sponsored by ecological associations such as Cultura Integral Forestal and Ciencia Cultura y Bosques. This annual event takes place in early July during the beginning of the rainy season and has been repeated for over twenty years. The event was initially sponsored by the Cultura Integral Forestal, made up of principally ex employees of the Loreto y Peña Pobre paper factory. Replanting efforts are focused on the main mountains of the Bosque de Tlalpan as well as the Tenantongo Valley in the same forest, planting mostly holm oak and ash trees. The annual effort has reforested over 1,500 hectares, using seeds encased in a clay ball designed to protect the seed and allow its germination. However, reforestation efforts have not been able to keep up with the deforestation of much of the borough.

Parque Nacional Cumbres del Ajusco

This is a national forest which covers much of the Sierra de Ajusco and Chichinautzin mountain ranges that separate Mexico City from the states of Morelos and the State of Mexico. A portion of this forest is located in the borough of Tlalpan, as well as Milpa Alta and Xochimilco. Much of the range consists of volcanic cones, almost all dormant, with the most prominent being Xitle. Depending on altitude, the climate ranges from temperate to cold, with all but the highest elevations covered in mostly pine forests. In winter, the highest peaks occasionally are covered in snow.

Bosque de Tlalpan

The Bosque de Tlalpan, also called the Parque Nacional Bosque de Pedregal, is fully surrounded by urban area, just south of the Anillo Periférico and between the highways heading to Cuernavaca and to Picacho-Ajusco. The Bosque de Tlalpan is filled with pines, oyamel fir, cedars, oaks and eucalyptus trees, which grow on a solidified lava bed. Wildlife includes eagles, falcons, squirrels and the Mexican mouse opossum. It has been open to the public since 1968. It has parking, restaurants and food stalls in cabins, playgrounds its own Casa de Cultura or cultural center.

One of the attractions in the park is the Tenantono Pyramid, which is located in a remote area of the park. Better known is the old Casa de la Bombas. This is an early 20th-century structure originally built in Colonia Condesa, Tlalpan to house a pump used to extract water from the ground. It ceased being a pump station in 1940 and laid vacant until 1975, when it was disassembled and moved to the Bosque. However, it was not reassembled until 1986 as part of a larger structure which now serves as a “Casa de Cultura” or cultural center. The façade of the center is made of volcanic stone called “chiluca” in French style, which was popular when it was originally built. The additions combine modern and Neoclassical elements but the interior is completely modern. The main areas are the gallery and the forum which host exhibitions and other events. There are also a number of workshops for dance, drama, music, literature and other arts. It is also the home of the Orquesta Juvenil de Tlalpan (Youth Orchestra of Tlalpan) .

Other parks

Fuentes Brotates de Tlalpan is a national park with an area of about one km2 running alongside a small canyon. It has a small lake and its own Casa de Cultura (cultural center). It has problems with trash and its ecosystem is heavily damaged, although there a number of large Moctezuma cypress trees.

The Parque Ecológico Loreto y Peña Pobre is located on what were the lands of a former paper factory and extends over 21,000m2. This factory, called Loreto y Peña Pobre, was built in the late 19th century (a time called the Porfiriato in Mexico) when many factories and other infrastructure was built in this area. The paper factory shut down in the 20th century, and its main building eventually became a mall, called the Plaza Inbursa (formerly Plaza Cuicuilco), which is known for its various entertainment options such as restaurants and movie theaters. In 1989, the rest of the lands were converted into this ecological park. It contains a model house showing alternative technologies designed to avoid environmental damage. Workshops are offered for children at the site, as well as restaurants serving organic food.

The Parque Juana de Asbaje was established in 1999, on the site of a former psychiatric hospital on land measuring 17,000m2. It has green areas along with a bookstore selling coloring books of pre-Hispanic deities for children and replicas of archeological objects. In 2005, the area generated controversy as the borough sought to relocate the Luis Cabrera Library. Residents initially objected, stating that it would develop too much of what is legally public space. However, later studies found that the land was not originally part of the public land grant, and the expanded library would be beneficial to the community. It was then built and has a collection of 11,000 books.

The Parque Ecologico Ejidal San Nicolás Totolapan is located by the semi-independent rural village of the same name covering over 2,000 hectares. It contains an important reserves of tree species such as pine, oyamel fir, white cedar and holm oak, as well as meadows. It is home to eighty-two species of animals, many of which are migratory species from the United States and Canada. It is open to the public for hiking, skiing, camping, mountain biking and horseback riding.

The first major population center in this part of the Valley of Mexico was Cuicuilco, which was populated as early as 1000 BCE. The current site contains an unusual circular pyramid, and is believed to mimic one of the volcanoes in the area. Cuicuilco was destroyed by a volcanic eruption from Xitle in 100 CE, whose lava flow eventually covered much of the south of the Valley of Mexico, creating what is now called the Pedregales del Sur as well as numerous caves and caverns. This also created areas with rich volcanic soil which would allow for agriculture and repopulation 600 years later.

However, the area would not have another major city state, and eventually it was dominated by the Aztecs from Tenochtitlan by the 15th century. It is from their language, Nahuatl, that the name of Tlalpan, would come to be used for the largest village in the area. It means “over the earth” and refers to roads that converged here, linking Tenochtitlan with points south. The borough’s glyph or symbol is the one given to the historic center by the Aztecs, a footprint over a symbol for clay soil.

The area come under control of the Spanish after the fall of Tenochtitlan, and the village’s name was changed from Tlapan to Villa de San Agustin de las Cuevas in 1645. San Agustin is the area’s patron saint, and the name of the parish church built by the Dominicans in the early 16th century. The last part means “of the caves,” referring to the many caves and caverns formed in the area by an eruption of the Xitle volcano in 100 CE. Initially, this area south of the Valley of Mexico was part of lands administered by authorities in Coyoacán. During the colonial period, the old village of Tlalpan was a modest farming village, known for its orchards and extensive forests. The latter made it attractive as a retreat for the wealthy of Mexico City. These elite established country homes and haciendas, which eventually became the economic base of the area. By the 18th century, the village of Tlalpan was large enough to be an ecclesiastical center.

After Independence, the Constitution of 1824, divided Mexico into states, with the area around Mexico City separated as a Federal District. However, the Tlalpan area was initially part of the then very large State of Mexico, which surrounded Mexico City. Tlalpan became the capital of the State of Mexico from 1837 until 1855, when the area was incorporated into the Federal District. U.S. troops passed this way in 1847 on the road to Coyoacán where they fought Mexican troops at the Battle of Churubusco .

After this war, President Antonio López de Santa Anna, expanded the Federal District south over Tlalpan to the southern mountains to make the Federal District more defensible. The village of Tlalpan became the head of what was then called the Southern Prefecture. Foreign troops passed through here again during the French Intervention in Mexico. Mexican opponents of this invasion in the village were hung at the “Arbol de los colgados” in the central plaza or square.

The latter decades are marked by industrialization. In the 1860s and 1870s varies types of modern infrastructure was introduced including telegraph (1866), railroad (1869) and the first long distance telephone in Mexico in 1878. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, (known as the Porfirato), various factories were established in the area including the then well known paper factory called Loreto y Peña Pobre. Today, the site of this factory is an ecological park. However, the village itself remained relatively untouched, filled with cobblestone streets and haciendas owned by the wealthy and filled with orchards growing apples, plums and more. No battle of the Mexican Revolution occurred here, but Zapatista troops passed through, allowing for a historic meeting between Emiliano Zapata and Francisco Villa in Tlalpan.

The borough of Tlalpan was created in 1928, when the Federal District of Mexico City was reorganized into 16 administrative parts called “delegaciones” (boroughs). At that time, the area was still very rural showing little influence from then-fast growing Mexico City. One reason for this was the area called the Pedregal, the old hardened lava flow from the Xitle volcano on much of the north end of the borough. This made development of much of the borough impossible until the mid-20th century. With the construction of the Jardines de Pedregal by Luis Barragán and the Ciudad Universitaria by Mario Pani, the city began to grow in that direction. The urban sprawl of Mexico City began to reach Tlalpan centero in the middle of the 20th century.

For the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City, two facilities were constructed in the delegation. Both were housing facilities for athletes called Villa Olimpica and Villa Coapa, which were turned into permanent houses after the games ended. In the 1990s, borough authorities warned that there was no more space in Tlalpan suitable for development and that preservation of the ecological areas needed to be primary as most of the territory is mountainous, with delicate forests and meadows. However, illegal settlements in conservation areas have continued the advance of urban sprawl into ecologically sensitive and protected areas. Most of these families are poor and the lack of living space pushes them into these areas where there are no services.(mancah) The advance of urbanization means the loss of protected areas and the loss of environmental services provided by the city government. It also increased the demand for borough services such as water, sewerage and roads, despite environmental regulations.

The Festival Ollin Jazz Tlalpan Internacional is a series of concerts which has hosted artists such as Enrique Neri, Eugenio Toussaint, Agustín Bernal, Bill McHenry, Brian Allen and Héctor Infanzón. The annual event takes place at the Multiforo Ollin Kan and other venues in the borough.

Six Flags México, The largest theme park in Latin América, this park is the most popular recreation center in the city and has a lot of roller coasters, rides and shows.

Just outside the archeological zone of Cuicuilco is the Centro Cultural Ollin Yoliztli (Movement and Life), where professional classes in music and dance are offered. Its concert hall is one of the sites of the Philharmonic Orchestra of Mexico City. There is another smaller hall dedicated to chamber music as well as galleries for exhibitions.

In the Torre de Telmex (Telmex Tower) the Soumaya Museum was inaugurated in 1998, which features a collection of 19th century sculpture including works by Antonio Rosseti, Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Auguste Rodin and Dominico Morone. Soumaya also holds temporary exhibits such as one called “Sanctuarios de lo intimo” which featured more than 600 miniature portraits and reliquaries in 2005. Nearby is the Mercado de Muebles Vasco de Quiroga furniture market where items such as bedroom sets, armoires, bookcases, tables and more are both made and sold.

The borough has sponsored graffiti artists to paint certain public areas such as on and under bridges. The goal is to divert said artists away from illegally defacing property and creating murals and encouraging more talented prospects to more formal training. These graffiti murals have had themes such as the war in Iraq and can be seen at intersections as Insurgentes/Renato Leduc and Calzada Tlalpan/Viaducto Tlalpan as well as on the highway leading to Cuernavaca. The borough has also encouraged the creation of formal graffiti “guilds” to work with authorities on projects.

In 2006, the borough constructed a public pool facility in Colonia Heroes de Padierna. The semi-Olympic sized pool is part of a sports facility that promotes sustainable development; the pool is solar heated. Heroes de Padierna is a lower-class neighborhood and the pool is aimed at attracting children and youths, charging only a small fee, in order to provide alternative recreation and sporting opportunities for families with few resources. The pool was built at a cost of 10,500,000 pesos with an other million spent creating a soccer field alongside.

Cuicuilco is the site of the first large-scale ceremonial center in the Mexican Plateau and one of oldest of any size in the Americas, with occupation starting around 1000 BCE. Cuicuilco means “place of hieroglyphics” in Nahuatl. The most important structure of the site is the Gran Basamento Circular or “Great Circular Base” which has characteristics typical for the Pre-Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology (800BCE to 150AC). There are two access ramps on the east and west sides aligned with the sun on the equinoxes. Today, still on these days, many visitors come dressed in white. Eruptions from the nearby Xitle volcanos destroyed the center and its population relocating to other parts of the Valley of Mexico. These same eruptions covered much of the south of the Valley of Mexico, created the rock bed known as the Pedregales del Sur, which cover parts of Tlalpan. There is a site museum which features small anthropomorphic figures.

Near Cuiculco there is the Villa Olímpica which was constructed in 1968, and a zone with sculptures called the Ruta de la Amistad (Friendship Route), created for the Cultural Olympics of 1968. The Villa Olympica, along with Villa Coapa, were housing complexes for athletes curing the 1968 Olympic Games, which were subsequently converted into lower class housing afterwards. The Villa Olympica also contains sporting facilities built at the same time, which currently serve 1,500 visitors per day. In 2003, these faculties were rehabilitated by the Federaciones Mexicanas de Atletismo y de Deportes en Silla de Ruedas and the borough. Some of these include the Olympic track and the indoor gymnasium.

The area also hosts one of Mexico City’s artificial beaches, called the Playa Villa Olympica. On busy days, this beach can receive as many as 5,000 visitors, requiring workers to go through the beach area every two hours just to pick up garbage. However, water quality in the various pools tends to suffer greatly during peak times.

The origins of the pueblos comes from the colonial period, when authorities worked to group dispersed bands of indigenous into villages centered around a church. This allowed them more control over the population and to regulate the economy. The pueblos in Tlalpan were mostly founded in the 16th century. In the most rural areas of the Federal District, some of these pueblos still exist intact. In Tlalpan, these include San Pedro Mártir, San Andrés Totoltepec, San Miguel Topilejo, San Miguel Xicalco, Parres el Guarda, Magdalena Petlacalco, San Miguel Ajusco and Santo Tomás Ajusco. The last two are often referred to together as “the two Ajuscos.”

The name Petlacalco means “house of palm mats.” It was one of the first villages established on the slopes of the Ajusco Mountain. It took the prefix of Magdalena to honor Mary Magdalene, as patron saint. The town is centered on a church built in 1725. It has one nave divided into three sections and a presbytery with a Neoclassical altar. On this altar is an image of Mary Magdalene which dates from the 18th century. The wooden main doors of the church were constructed much later, 1968. The town’s saint’s days are 1 January and 22 July. It also has a patron an image of the Señor de la Columna, an image of Jesus as he was tied to a post for flogging. This image is brought out for procession and other honors on the first Friday of Lent. The village is surrounded by communal lands in which there are forests, surface water and landscapes that the residents are tasked with conserving. It is the site of El Arenal, a sand dune formed by the ash of the Xitle volcano. The area attracts families and other visitors who climb dunes.

Parres el Guarda was founded in the middle of the 19th century as a rail town, when the line connecting Mexico City and Cuernavaca was built. Parres was an important stop for both passengers and freight along this line. The community was founded on lands that belonged to the Juan de las Fuentes Parres Hacienda, giving the town its name. Today, one can still see the ruins of the old hacienda main house. Its economy currently is based on the cultivation of animal feed and is an important producer of this product. It is also known for the sheep meat which is most often used in the preparation of barbacoa in the Mexico City area. Its patron saint is the Virgin of Guadalupe, celebrated on 12 December traditionally with the Chinelos dance, fireworks, cockfights and more.

San Andrés Totoltepec was founded in 1548, when the lands in this area were taken from their indigenous owners and the residents moved to the new village, with its church whose current structure was built in the 18th century. In 1560, the lands were returned for communal possession of the village. The name Nahuatl name Totoltepec mean “turkey hill.” Over half of the village’s residents today are dedicated to commerce, one fifth to industry and only a tenth to agriculture and livestock. Of the land surrounding it, 40% is unsuitable for farming due to volcanic rock. The center of the town is its church, dedicated to the Apostle Andrew. It has one nave, choir and presbytery with an altarpiece from the 18th century. This altarpiece has paintings of Christ receiving baptism and the appearances of the Virgin of Guadalupe. At the top, there is an image of Andrew, sculpted in wood. The east wall has a paintings from the 18th century with an image of Saint Isadore the Laborer, along with an image of the Virgin Mary in wood and an image of Christ in cornstalk paste.

San Miguel Ajusco was founded in 1531 by an indigenous leader named Tecpanécatl under the auspices of the Spanish. The center of the village then and now is church founded in dedicated to the Archangel Michael. According to local tradition, this angel has appeared to the village three times. The church’s current structure dates to 1707, with an 18th-century wood sculpture of the Archangel in the presbytery. The main portal is made of sandstone with a high relief of Saint James the Greater which as has an inscription in Nahuatl. The archangel is commemorated on 8 May and 29 September, with Chinelos, rodeo and other traditional events. Near the village, there is an area called Las Calaveras at the foot of the Mesontepec Hill, which has a small pyramid called Tequipa.

San Miguel Topilejo was founded by Franciscan friars under Martín de Valencia. Topilejo is from Nahuatl and means “he who wields the precious scepter of command”. One of the main attractions is the San Miguel Arcangel Church on the town’s main square. This church was built in 1560, with the cupola redone in the 18th century and the tower finished in 1812. The atrium is built over what probably was a pre-Hispanic platform. It was declared a historic monument by the federal government in 1932. The town’s economy is mostly based on farming, producing crops such as vegetables, houseplants, oats and corn, with forty percent of the population dedicated to this. The town and church is dedicated to the Archangel Michael who is honored each 29 September with Aztec dance, Chinelos, wind band and other folk and popular dance. The town also hosts the annual Feria del Elote (Corn Fair) which began in 1985.

San Miguel Xicalco is located just off the Mexico City-Cuernavaca highway. Xicalco comes from Nahuatl and means “house of grass” or “house of plants.” San Miguel is in honor of the Archangel Michael, the patron saint, who is said to have appeared here. The center of the small community is a chapel from the 17th century, which has one nave, of three sections and a presbytery. The image of Michael inside is made of cornstalk paste. Michael is honored twice a year here, on 8 May, when he is said to have appeared and on 29 September, his usual feast day. These days are traditionally celebrated with mole rojo (red mole sauce), tamales, Chinelos, other indigenous and folk dance as well as traditional music. Another story from the area is that during the Mexican Revolution, Zapatista troops took control of the small church to use as a headquarters. Today, there is a small cannon which is said to have been left by these troops.

San Pedro Mártir is believed to have been founded by Franciscan monks during the early colonial period, with its chapel around the end of the 17th or early 18th century. This chapel has a simple portal with little decoration. The entrance arch has a niche with a sculpture of Saint Peter of Verona, the patron saint, with a cross at the crest. This chapel has a single nave with a vault covering it. Above the choir area, there is an Austrian eagle and a medallion with an image of the Archangel Michael. There is also an 18th-century sculpture of Saint Peter of Verona. The main altar contains a crucifix which also dates from the 18th century. The feast day of the patron saint is celebrated on 29 April with traditional dances such as Santiagos, Pastores, Arreiros and Chinelos. Many residents sustain themselves on ejido lands which they gained after the Mexican Revolution, growing staple crops such as corn and beans.

Santo Tomás Ajusco was founded in the early colonial period. Ajusco refers to the many fresh water springs which flow on the side of the Ajusco Mountain. The center of the town has a single nave church with a sculpture of Saint Thomas sculpted in wood, a crucifix made of ivory and an 18th-century sculpture of Saint James on horseback inside. The façade has three portals in sandstone with the center one decorated in plant motifs. The face also has three low reliefs. The atrium is paved with rock taken from the Tequipa pyramid. The feast day of the patron saint is 3 July.

In 2010, the city incorporated 175 hectares of forest in the borough as areas protected by the city in the areas around San Miguel Ajusco and Santo Tómas Ajusco. One reason for this was to put an end to territorial disputes between these two communities as well as with the neighboring community of Xalatlco in the State of Mexico for seventy years. Another reason is to combat continuing illegal logging and settlements.

he borough of Xochimilco was created in 1928, when the federal government reorganized the Federal District of Mexico City into sixteen boroughs. The Xochimilco borough was centered on what was the city of Xochimilco, which had been an independent settlement from the pre-Hispanic period to the 20th century. The area’s historic separation from Mexico City proper remains in its culture. While officially part of the city, its identity is more like a suburb. This historic center was designated as a “Barrio Mágico” by the city in 2011. The borough is center-south of the historic center of Mexico City, and bordered by the boroughs of Tlalpan, Coyoacán, Tláhuac and Milpa Alta. It extends over 125 km2 (48 sq mi), accounting for 8.4% of the Federal District’s territory. It is the third largest borough, after Tlalpan, and Milpa Alta. The borough has an emblem, also known as an Aztec glyph, which is a representation of the area’s spongy soil from which two flowering plants emerge. In spite of the serious environmental issues, 77.9% of the territory is designated as ecological reserve, 15.2% as residential and 4.6 as commercial and industrial.

The borough is divided into eighteen “barrios,” which make up the old city of Xochimilco and fourteen communities outside the traditional city called “pueblos.” The barrios are El Rosario, Santa Crucita, Caltongo, San Lorenzo, San Diego, La Asunción, San Juan, San Antonio, Belem, San Cristóbal, San Esteban, La Santísima, La Guadalupita, La Concepción Tlacoapa, San Marcos and Xaltocan, The fourteen pueblos are San María Tepepan, Santiago Tepalcatlalpan, San Mateo Xalpa, San Lorenzo Atemoaya, Santa Cruz Xochitepec, San Lucas Xochimanca, San Francisco Tlalnepantla, Santa María Nativitas, San Gregorio Atlapulco, Santiago Tulyehualco, San Luis Tlaxialtemalco, San Andrés Ahuayucan, Santa Cecilia Tepetlapa and San Cruz Acalpixca. There are also 45 smaller divisions called “colonias” and twenty major apartment complexes. The city acts as the local government for all the communities of the borough, whether part of the city or not. These offices are located on Calle Guadalupe I. Ramirez 4, in the El Rosario area. The borough has 11.4 km (7.1 mi) of primary roadway and 4,284,733 square metres (1,058.8 acres) of paved surface. Major thoroughfares include the Xochimilco-Tulyehualco road, Nuevo León, Periférico Sur, Avenida Guadalupe and Calzada México-Xochimilco. However, many of the areas of the borough are still semi-rural, with communities that still retain many old traditions and economic activities. For example, San Antonio Molotlán is noted for textiles and its Chinelos dancers. San Lorenzo Tlaltecpan is known for the production of milk and there are still a large number of stables in the area.

The most notable neighborhoods/communities include Xaltocan, Ejidos de Tepepan, La Noria, Las Cruces, Ejidos de Xochimilco and San Gregorio Atlapulco. San Francisco Caltongo is one of the oldest neighborhoods of the borough. Xaltocán began as a ranch or hacienda that belonged to the indigenous caciques. It was later donated to the San Bernardino de Siena monastery. After the monastery was secularized, it became hacienda land again, but over time, parts were sold and it became the current area of Xochimilco. The church for this community was built in 1751 as the hacienda chapel. Originally, it was dedicated to Jesus, then Candlemas and finally the Virgin of the Sorrows (Virgen de los Dolores). It officially became a sanctuary in 1951, declared by the archbishop of Mexico. In 1964, Xaltocán became a parish and in 1976, this church became the official parish church. The main celebration of the church is to an image of the Virgin Mary, which is said to have miraculously appeared in the pen of a turkey kept by an old woman.

In 2005, the borough had a population of 404,458, 4.6% of the total population of the Federal District. The growth rate is 1.8% for the past decade, lower than the decade previous. However, a large percentage of the borough’s population lives in poverty and many live illegally on ecological reserves, lacking basic services such as running water and drainage. In the past, houses in the area were constructed from adobe and wood from juniper trees, but today, most constructions are boxy cinderblock constructions, many of which are not painted. By the 2010 census its population had grown to 415,007 inhabitants, or 4.69% of Mexico City’s total.

What was the city of Xochimilco, now sometimes called the historic center of the borough, began as a pre-Hispanic city on the southern shore of Lake Xochimilco. After the Conquest, the Spanish built the San Bernardino de Siena monastery and church, which is still the center of the borough. The main street through the center of town, Guadalupe I.Ramirez, was originally a land bridge connecting this area, then on an island, to the causeway that lead to Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). As the lake dried, the bridge became road, and it was called the Puente de Axomulco in the colonial era. It received its current name in the 1970s to honor a delegate of the borough. This town center also has a large plaza and to the side of this, a large area filled with street vendors, many selling ice cream. There is also a “Tiangus de Comida” or market filled with food stalls. This center underwent renovations in 2002 at a cost of sixty million pesos. Drainage and sidewalks were improved and security cameras installed. To improve the area’s look for tourists, businesses in the center agreed with the borough and INAH to change their façades to certain colors.

Much of the borough’s land is former lakebed. Its main elevations include Xochitepec and Tlacualleli mountains along with two volcanoes named Teutli and Tzompol. It contains two natural rivers called Santiago and Tepapantla along with the various canals, which is what is left of the lake. The elevated areas of the borough contain small forests of ocotes, strawberry trees, cedars, Montezuma cypress and a tree called a “tepozan.”

Xochimilco, along with other southern boroughs such as Milpa Alta and Tlalpan, have lower crime statistics than most other areas of the Federal District. However, crime, especially that related to kidnapping and drug trafficking has been on the rise, and more rural communities have taken to vigilante justice. Residents state that this is necessary because there is insufficient police protection. Xochimilco has only one policeman for each 550 residents on average, and there have been complaints that police have taken over 30 minutes to respond to calls. The borough has a population of 368,798, but only 670 police and 40 police cars. There was one case of vigilante justice in 1999, when a youth accused of robbery was caught and beaten by residents before handed over to police. But the police did not pursue the charge.

The Xochimilco Light Rail line, locally known as El Tren Ligero, of STE, provides light rail service connecting the borough to the Mexico City Metro system.

Lake Xochimilco and the canal system

Xochimilco is characterized by a system of canals, which measure about a total of 170 km2. These canals, and the small colorful boats that float on them among artificially created land called chinampas are internationally famous. These canals are popular with Mexico City residents as well, especially on Sundays. These canals are all of what is left of what used to be a vast lake and canal system that extended over most parts of the Valley of Mexico, restricting cities such as Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and Xochimilco to small islands. This system of waterways was the main transportation venue, especially for goods from the pre-Hispanic period until the 20th century. In the pre-Hispanic period, parts of the shallow lakes were filled in, creating canals. Starting in the early colonial period, the interconnected lakes of the valley, including Lake Xochimilco, were drained. By the 20th century, the lakes had shrunk to a system of canals that still connected Xochimilco with the center of Mexico City. However, with the pumping of underground aquifers since the early 20th century, water tables have dropped, drying canals, and all that are left are the ones in Xochimilco. The canals are fed by fresh water springs, which is artificially supplemented by treated water. This because water tables are still dropping and human expansion and filling in of canals is still occurring, threatening to have the last of these canals disappear despite their importance to tourism.

These remaining canals and their ecosystem was declared a World Heritage Site in 1987, with the purpose of saving them. An important part of this ecosystem is a juniper tree called a “ahuejote” that is native to the shallow waters of the lake/canals. These stem erosion, act as wind breakers and favor the reproduction of a variety of aquatic species. Some of these endemic species include a freshwater crayfish called an acocil, and the Montezuma frog. However, the most representative animal from these waters is the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). This amphibian was used as a medicine, food and ceremonial object during the Aztec empire. It was considered to be an incarnation of the god Xolotl, brother of Quetzalcoatl. It has been studied due to its abilities to regenerate limbs and other body parts. It can also reach sexual maturity as a larva, which no other amphibian can do. While mostly aquatic, it does have limited ability to breathe air. As of 2003, there were only 600 axolotls known to exist in the wild. Most of the threat to the species is loss of habitat and pollution, but the introduction of non-native fish such as tilapia has also had disastrous effects on the population of this and other species. Conservation efforts include research and environmental education. The Grupo de Investigación del Ajolote en Xochimilco (GIA-X) is a nonprofit research group dedicated to the preservation of the axolotl, which is in danger of extinction. It works to better understand the creature as well as with the local community to protect what is left of its habitat. In addition to species that live in the area year round, the wetlands here host about forty percent of the migratory bird species that arrive to Mexico, roughly 350, use the wet areas around Xochimilco for nesting. Many of these come from the United States and Canada. However, much of this habitat has been urbanized. About 700 species have been found in the area overall. Some of the migratory species include pelicans, storks, buzzards and falcons.

The destruction of the last of these canals began in the 1950s. At that time, groundwater pumping under the city center was causing severe subsidence. These wells were closed and new ones dug in Xochimilco and other southern boroughs. High rates of extraction have had the same effect on water tables and canals began to dry. Since then reclaimed wastewater has been recycled to flow into the Xochimilco canals to supplement water from natural sources. However, this water is not potable, containing bacteria and heavy metals and the canals still receive untreated wastewater and other pollution Another major problem, especially in the past two decades has been the population explosion of Mexico City, pushing urban sprawl further south into formerly rural areas of the Federal District. This prompted authorities to seek World Heritage Site status for the canals and the pre-Hispanic chinampa fields to provide them more environmental protection. This was granted in 1987, but these same major environmental problems still exist. A 2006 study by UNESCO and Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana has shown that there are still very high levels of pollution (both garbage and fecal matter) in the canals and there still a rapid rate of deterioration 2,000 hectares of protected area. UNESCO has placed the most blame for the problems on the proliferation of illegal human settlements in the protected zone. Each year the borough loses six hectares of former lakebed to illegal settlements. According to the borough, about 90,000 people in Xochimilco live in illegal settlements, such as those in ecological zones and 33,804 families live illegally on the chinampas. The most problematic are those closest to the canals, which cause the most pollution. The area is also sinking 18 cm (7.1 in) per year due to over pumping of groundwater, and canals are being filled in illegally. The deterioration is happening so fast, that UNESCO has threatened to pull Xochimilco World Heritage Site status.

Other major problems facing the canal system is the damage by introduced species and disease destroying native ones. Water lilies were introduced to the canals from Brazil in the 1940s. Since then, they have become a serious problem as their overgrowth depletes minerals and oxygen from the water. Up to 400 tons of the plant has been extracted from the canals monthly. In 2006, a Brazilian insect (Anthonomus grandis) was introduced to the canals to help control the plant. However, some need to be maintained because the axolotls are using them for reproduction purposes. Introduced species include carp and tilapia, which were introduced in the 1960s. However, these have been very detrimental to the native ecosystem, especially the axolotl, whose eggs they eat. Despite tons of the fish being caught in the canals, they are still a serious problem. Another major problem is the loss of trees, especially junipers in the ecological zone. Over sixty percent of the area is considered to be serious deforested and eighty percent of the junipers have the parasitic plant mistletoe.

Since being declared a World Heritage Site, there have been attempts to rescue the canal system. The first major effort occurred between 1989 and 1994, which was called the “Rescate Ecológico.” It had the goal of constructing a large artificial lake for tourism and sports covering 360 hectares, ten times the size of the lake in Chapultepec Park. These would be divided into two parts called the Ciénega Grande and Ciénega Chica on the side of the Periférico Sur. It would also include the creation of a chinampa zone, and areas for culture and commerce and elevated buildings over the two sides of the Periférico Sur similar to those in the San Jerónimo area. However, this plan was stopped by agricultural communities in the area, which have a long history of defending their rights. However, since then, the area has been urbanized. It was replaced by a much smaller lake, with ecological area and plant market. In 2008, borough authorities began a reforestation program over 5,000 hectares of chinampas and forested areas at a cost of 20 million pesos. This program includes the cutting of non native species such as eucalyptus and certain pines and cedars to eradicate plagues associated with them. However, residents near forests such as in Nativitas oppose the cutting of healthy trees. These are to be replaced by native species, especially junipers in the chinampa areas. However, it is still estimated that because of the continuance of urban sprawl, the remaining canals and protected land will disappear within fifty years.

Chinampas

Canals in the waters of Lake Xochimilco were initially created along with that of a kind of artificial agricultural plots called chinampas. Chinampas were invented by the pre-Hispanic peoples of the region around 1,000 year ago as a way to increase agricultural production. On the shallow waters of the lakes, rafts were constructed of juniper branches. Onto these rafts floating on the water, lakebed mud and soil were heaped and crops planted. These rafts, tied to juniper trees, would eventually sink and a new one be built to replace it. Over time, these sunken rafts would form square or rectangular islands, held in place in part by the juniper trees. As these chinampa islands propagated, areas of the lake were reduced to canals. These “floating gardens were an important part of the economy of the Aztec Empire by the time the Spanish arrived. Today, only about 5,000 chinampas, all affixed to the lake bottom, still exist in their original form, surrounded by canals and used for agriculture. The rest have become solid ground and urbanized. In the center of Xochimilco, there are about 200 chinampas, covering an area of 1,800 hectares. However, one reason the number has decreased is that smaller chinampas have been combined to create larger ones. While there are still those who maintain chinampas traditionally, and use them for agriculture, the chinampa culture is fading in the borough with many being urbanized, and being turned into soccer fields, and sites for housing and businesses. The deterioration of many of these chinampas can be seen as their edges erode into the dark, polluted water of the canals. The most deteriorated chinampas are located in the communities of Santa María Nativitas, Santa Cruz Acalpixca, San Gregoria Atlapulco and Ejido de Xochimilco. Together, these have a total of thirty eight illegal settlements. To repair a number of chinampas, the borough along with federal authorities, has reinforced forty two km of shoreline, of the 360 km (220 mi) that exist in the lake area. This involves the planting of juniper trees and the sinking of tezontle pylons into the lakebed. These remaining chinampas are part of the Xochimilco World Heritage Site. Have since changed use and become residences and businesses. Those that remain agricultural are mostly used as nurseries, growing ornamental plants such as bougainvilleas, cactuses, dahlias, day lilies, and even bonsai. As they can produce up to eight times the amount of conventional land, they are still an important part of the borough’s agricultural production. There have been various attempts to save the remaining chinampas, including their cataloguing by UNESCO, UAM and INAH in 2005, and various reforestation efforts, especially of juniper trees.

About an hour long canal ride from an embarcadero, pier, lies Isla de las Muñecas, or the Island of the Dolls. It is the best-known chinampa, or floating garden, in Xochimilco. It belonged to a man named Don Julián Santana Barrera, a native of the La Asunción neighborhood. Santana Barrera was a loner, who was rarely seen in most of Xochimilco. According to the legend, Barrera discovered a little girl drowned in mysterious circumstances in the canals. He also found a doll floating nearby and, assuming it belonged to the deceased girl, hung it from a tree as a sign of respect. After this, he began to hear whispers, footsteps, and anguished wails in the darkness even though his hut—hidden deep inside the woods of Xochimilco—was miles away from civilization. Driven by fear, he spent the next fifty years hanging more and more dolls, some missing body parts, all over the island in an attempt to appease what he believed to be the drowned girl’s spirit. After Barrera’s death in 2001—his body reportedly found in the exact spot where he found the girl’s body fifty years before—the area became a popular tourist attraction where visitors bring more dolls. The locals describe it as “charmed”—not haunted—even though travelers claim the dolls whisper to them. Professional photographer Cindy Vasko visited the nightmarish island in 2015 and described it as the “creepiest place she has ever visited”. The excursion began through maze-like canals, surrounded by lush greenery and beautiful singing birds, but soon her boat was slowed down by a swarm of lily pads and the canal fell ominously silent. She told MailOnline: “At the end of the journey, the trajinera turned along a bend in the waterway and I was struck by a surreal vision of hundreds, maybe thousands, of dolls hanging from trees on the tiny island.” The dolls are still on the island, which is accessible by boat. The island was featured on the Travel Channel show Ghost Adventures.

The name “Xochimilco” comes from Nahuatl and means “flower field.” This referred to the many flowers and other crops that were grown here on chinampas since the pre-Hispanic period.

The first human presence in the area was of hunter gatherers, who eventually settled into farming communities. The first settlements in the Xochimilco area were associated with the Cuicuilco, Copilco and Tlatilco settlements during the Classic period. The Xochimilca people, considered one of the seven Nahua tribes that migrated into the Valley of Mexico, first settled around 900 CD in Cuahilama, near what is now Santa Cruz Acalpixca. They worshipped sixteen deities, with Chantico, goddess of the hearth and Cihuacoatl, an earth goddess and Amimitl, god of chinampas the most important.

The Xochimilcas were farmers and founded their first dominion under a leader named Acatonallo. He is credited with inventing the chinampa system of agriculture to increase production. These chinampas eventually became the main producer with crops such as corn, beans, chili peppers, squash and more. The city of Xochimilco was founded in 919. Over time, it grew and began to dominate other areas on the south side of the lakes such as Mixquic, Tláhuac, Culhuacan and even parts of what is now the State of Morelos. Xochimilco had one woman ruler, which did not happen anywhere else in Mesoamerica in the pre-Hispanic period. She is credited with adding a number of distinctive dishes to the area’s cuisine, with inclusions such as necuatolli, chileatolli (atole with chili pepper), esquites and tlapiques.

In 1352, then emperor Caxtoltzin moved the city from the mainland to the island of Tlilan. In this respect it was like another island city in the area, Tenochtitlan. Although no longer an island, the city center is still in the same spot. In 1376, Tenochtitlan attacked Xochimilco, forcing the city to appeal to Azcapotzalco for help. The conquest was unsuccessful, but Xochimilco was then forced to pay tribute to Azcapotzalco. Tenochtitlan succeeded in conquering Xochimilco in 1430, while it was ruled by Tzalpoyotzin. Shortly thereafter, Aztec emperor Itzcoatl built the causeway or calzada that would connect the two cities over the lake. During the reign of Moctezuma Ilhuicamina, the Xochimilcas contributed materials and manpower to construct a temple to Huitzilopochtli. They also participated in the further conquests of the Aztec Empire such as in Cuauhnáhuac (Cuernavaca), Xalisco and the Metztitlán and Oaxaca valleys. For their service, Ahuizotl, granted the Xochimilcas autonomy in their lands, and the two cities coexisted peacefully. Aztec emperors would pass by here on royal barges on their way to Chalco/Xico, then an island in Lake Chalco. For centuries Xochimilco remained relatively separate from Mexico City but provided much of the larger city’s produce.

Aztec emperor Moctezuma Xocoyotzin imposed a new governor, Omácatl, onto Xochimilco due to the arrival of the Spanish, but this governor was forced to return to Tenochtitlan, when the emperor was taken prisoner. He was then succeeded by Macuilxochitecuhtli, but eighty days later he too went to Tenochtitlan to fight the Spanish alongside Cuitláhuac. He was followed by Apochquiyautzin, who remained loyal to Tenochtitlan. For this reason, Hernán Cortés decided to send armies to subdue Xochimilco before taking Tenochtitlan. This occurred on 16 April 1521. During the battle, Cortés was almost killed when he fell off his horse, but he was saved by a soldier named Cristóbal de Olea. The battle was fierce and left few Xochimilca warriors alive. According to legend, it was after this battle that Cuauhtémoc came to Xochimilco and planted a juniper tree in the San Juan neighborhood to commemorate the event.

Pre-Hispanic Xochimilco was an island connected to the mainland by three causeways. One of these still exists in the form of Avenida Guadalupe I.Ramirez, one of the city’s main streets. This causeway led to the main ceremonial center of the town, which was called the Quilaztli. The Spanish destroyed the Quilaztli during the Conquest, and replaced it with the San Bernardino de Siena Church, which would become the social and political center of the colonial city. The city in turn, was the most important settlement in the south of the Valley of Mexico in the colonial era. It became a settlement of Spanish, criollos and mestizos, with the indigenous living in rural communities outside of the city proper.

During the Siege of Tenochtitlan, Hernan Cortes attacked the city and the “great number of warriors” in it. During the battle, Cortes was knocked from his horse, and almost captured by the Mexicans. The following day, Guatemoc sent ten thousand warriors by land and two thousand by canoe to attack the Spaniards, followed by ten thousand reinforcements. The Mexicans were defeated, and Cortes was able to capture five Mexican captains. Cortes then proceeded with his march.:340–347

After the Conquest, Apochquiyauhtzin, the last lord of Xochimilco, was baptized with the name of Luís Cortés Cerón de Alvarado in 1522 and he was allowed to continue governing under the Spanish. Evangelization was undertaken here by Martín de Valencia with a number of others who are known as the first twelve Franciscans in Mexico. Their monastery was built between 1534 and 1579, along with many chapels and churches in the Xochimilco area, a hospital in Tlacoapa and a school. Xochimilco was made an encomienda of Pedro de Alvarado in 1521 and remained such until 1541.

The Spanish used the lakes and canals of the Valley of Mexico much as the indigenous did, at least at first. Xochimilco remained an important agricultural area, shipping its produce to Mexico City in the same ways. However, problems with flooding, especially the Great Flood of 1609 in Mexico City and Xochimilco, spurred the Spanish to begin projects to drain the lakes. As a result, these lakes, including Lake Xochimilco, has suffered one of the most radical transformations in the history of urbanization. Five hundred years ago, the lake extended 350km2 and contained 170 km (110 mi) 2 of chinampas and 750 km (470 mi) of canals. Today there are only 25km2 of chinampas and 170 km (110 mi) of canals, and they are still disappearing.

Xochimilco was granted the title of city by Felipe II in 1559. Through much of the colonial era, the city’s native population was decimated by epidemics, especially typhoid. Despite this, and because of the apparent acceptance of Christianity, the Xochimilcas were permitted to retain a number of their traditions and their identity as a people. The area remained mostly indigenous for much of the colonial period. Its importance as an agricultural center with easy access to Mexico City meant that in the 17th century, about two thousand barges a day still traveled on the waters that separated the two areas.

In 1749, Xochimilco became a “corregimiento” or semi-autonomous area from Mexico City and would remain so until Independence. It would also increase in importance as a stopover for those traveling between Mexico City and Cuernavaca. Also during this time, Xochimila Martín de la Cruz, wrote Xihuipahtli mecéhual amato” better known as the Aztec Herbal Book or the Cruz-Badiano Codex. It is the oldest book on medicine written on the American continent. It was translated into Latin by Juan Badiano. The original is in the Vatican.

After Independence, Xochimilco became a municipality in what was then the State of Mexico. It would later become a part of the Federal District of Mexico City after the Mexican American War, when this district was expanded.

Manuel Payno in his novel “Los bandidos del río Frio” related a journey through here between San Lázaro and Chalco. In 1850, the first steam powered boat traveled through here, connecting Mexico City with Chalco. Steam powered ships remained in Xochimilco waters from then until the 1880s, when they faded from use. Before, during and after, Xochimilco continued to make more traditional rafts, canoes and trajineras, pushed along the shallow waters by a pole.

Up through the centuries, the valley lakes continued to shrink but there were still canals that linked Xochimilco to the center of Mexico City. In the late 19th century, Mexico City had outgrown its traditional water supplies and began to take water from the springs and underground aquifers of Xochimilco. Degradation of the lakes was fastest in the early 20th century, when projects such as the Canal del Desagüe were built to further drain the valley. This and excessive aquifer pumping lowered water tables and canals near Mexico City center dried up and cut off an inexpensive way to get goods to market for Xochimilco. This had a major effect on the area’s economy, along with the effects of the loss of fishing for communities such as Santa Cruz Acalpixca, San Gregorio Atlapulco and San Luis Tlaxialtemalco.(rescartarlo) In 1908, an electric tram serves was inaugurated that was supposed to reach Tulyehualco, but never did.

During the Mexican Revolution, the first Zapatistas came into the borough through Milpa Alta. They burned areas in Nativitas and San Lucas in 1911 and then stayed without further attacks. They then took the city of Xochimilco in 1912, burning the southern part. The Zapatistas then controlled most of what is now the borough. On 23 April 1913, 39 youths were shot to death in a small alley in San Lucas Xochimanca. A plaque commemorates the site. When the Zapatistas were confronted by troops loyal to Venustiano Carranza in Cuemanco, they damaged pumps and set the center of Xochimilco and the original municipal palace on fire. In 1914, Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata met in San Gregorio and signed an alliance called the Pact of Xochimilco.

After the war, Xochimilco became a borough when the Federal District was reorganized, including the communities of Mixquic, San Juan Ixtayopan and Tetelco. These and other territories would be lost and its final dimensions attained in 1931.

In the 1920s, Xochimilco lost control of most of its water supply, taken by the city for its needs. The urban sprawl of Mexico City reached Xochimilco in the mid 20th century and it still affects the borough today. In the 1970s, the federal government began to replace the lost supply to the canals with treated water from the nearby Cerro de la Estrella. This is most of the water that now flows in the canals. The treated water is clear, but not potable due to bacteria and heavy metals. However, it is used to irrigate crops grown on the chinampas, even though the canals are further polluted by untreated sewerage and garbage. The biggest threat to the canals and their ecosystem is uncontrolled sprawl, mostly due to illegal building on conservation land. These settlements are polluting canals with untreated garbage and waste, and filling in canals to make “new land.” There are thirty one illegal settlements in the historic center, with 2,700 constructions. Ten of these are in the chinampas of San Gregorio Atlapulco, San Luis Tlaxialtemalco, Santa Cruz Acalpixca and Santa María Nativitas. The borough and UNESCO are at odds over what to do about the 450 hectares of illegal settlements. UNESCO demands their eviction, but the borough says this would be too difficult and better to legalize the settlements, putting efforts into preventing more.

From the pre-Hispanic period to the present, religion has pervaded the life of people in this region. Since it was imposed in the early 16th century, the Catholic religion has permeated and molded popular culture. Like in other parts of Mexico, indigenous ideas and practices, such as those of the Xochimilca, were not completely eradicated. Instead, many were integrated and readapted to Catholicism. One example of this is the building of churches over former temples and other sacred sites. These churches’ decoration often have indigenous elements to them as well. Despite the fact that 91% of the population self identifies as Catholic, there are still many indigenous and traditions related to the agricultural cycle. A more important syncretism has been the many religious festivals that occur through the year, and the means by which these festivals are sponsored and organized. Much of religious practice in the borough is through symbolic processes that work to produce a kind of social cohesion. The most visible of these are the large civic/religious festivals.

There is some religious plurality in the borough although they represent a very small minority of the population. There are thirty six non-Catholic congregations in the borough with about seventy places of worship. Almost all are Protestant or Evangelical groups established by missionaries, mostly from the United States. The first was established 120 years ago, but most have been established in the last twenty years, with a small but growing number of followers. However, since almost all social activity is related to this popular Catholic festival calendar, intolerance of religious minorities generally takes the subtle form of being excluded from events, although a number of non-Catholics participate in festivities anyway.

These mostly religious festivals and other traditions have been maintain despite the urbanization of the borough. The calendar of celebrations here is extensive. Some are civic or political events such as Independence Day or local celebrations such as the birth of poet Fernando Celada, the birth of Quirino Mendoza y Cortés, composer of “Cielito Lindo,” and the commemoration of the meeting of Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata on December 4 in this area. However, most events are tied to religious activity and tradition, organized by volunteers called mayordomos. The mayordomia system is the most important social structure in the borough. The primary task of these volunteers is to sponsor and organized any many religious festivals and celebrations that occur through the year, as well as other duties. This may be paid for by collecting donations or paid for directly by the mayordomo. There are 422 officially recognized festivals during the year, including those local to specific communities. One of these more localized festivals is on May 3, Day of the Holy Cross, which has been celebrated in communities such as Santa Cruz Xochitepec (or Magdalena Xochitepec), Santa Cruz Acalpixcan and the center of Xochimilco for over 400 years.

However, the best known mayordomo position is not for a festival, but rather for the care of an image of the child Jesus called the Niñopa. The image is over 435 years old and has a following of about 25,000 in the Xochimilco area. It measures 51 cm (20 in) and weighs less than a kilo. The name “Niñopa” comes from the Spanish word “niño” (child) and the Nahuatl suffix “-pan” (place) to mean “child of the place.” The image was thought to have been made of orange tree wood, but this was proven false when the image was dropped and a finger damaged, allowing for the taking of a small sample. The analysis showed that it was made in the local area of a tree called a chocolín, in the 16th or 17th century. The prestige for becoming a mayordomo for the Niñopa is so great, that the waiting time to become one is decades long. The mayordomo receives nothing for the care of the image and pays all expenses out of pocket, which includes building rooms for the image to stay, and sponsoring the nearly daily events dedicated to this image. The annual cycle begin on February 2, when the image is received by a new mayordomo. During the year, the image visits homes and hospitals, accompanied by Chinelos dancers. In addition to the Niñopan, other important child Jesus figures include the Niño Dormidito in the Xaltocan neighborhood, the Niño de Belen at the Salitre Embarcadero, the Niño Tamalerito, and the Niño de San Juan. These images, along with the Niñopan, are celebrated together on April 30, at an event called the Niños Sagrados. There are various replicas of the Niñopa, which are owned by former mayordomos.

Fifteen of the eighteen pueblos of Xochimilco hold major events for Day of the Dead, including costume parades, exhibitions, especially of altars, in cemeteries, museums, plazas and more. The Dolores Olmedo Museum has an annual monumental altar to the dead for the occasion As per traditions, the cemeteries of smaller communities such as San Francisco Tlalnepantla, Santa Cruz Xochitepec and Santa María Nativitas are lit with the glow of numerous candles and loved ones sit vigil over the graves. The best known event associated with Day of the Dead is the “la Cihuacoatle, Leyenda de la Llorona,” which is a spectacle based on the La Llorona spectre, which runs from late October to mid November. It takes place on the waters of the old Tlilac Lake. Spectators watch the event from trajineras that depart from the Cuemanco docks and travel the canals to reach the lake. Another similar performance is called “Retorno al Mictlan “or Return to Mictlan, the Aztec land of the Dead, which is performed in the historic center of Xochimilco.

After the Conquest, Spaniards began to build churches and monasteries in the various villages in what is now the borough. Typical of these is the monastery at Santa María Tepepan, constructed between 1525 and 1590. Today, Xochimilco has nine parishes and five rectories. The most important of this is also the first church established in the area, the San Bernardino de Siena church and former monastery founded by Martín de Valencia. The current church building was constructed between 1535 and 1590 under the direction of Francisco de Soto, but the cloister and monastery area were not finished until the early 17th century. In 1609, a monastery school was founded at the site with classes in rhetoric, theology and arts and letters. Most of the funding of the project came from indigenous leaders of the area, especially Martín Cerónde de Álvaro. In 1538, the Church wanted to bring the complex’s Franciscans into Mexico City, but the local people opposed and won. However, in 1569, there were still only four monks serving over 5,000 native people. Soon after, the indigenous population was organized into neighborhoods for indoctrination and census purposes: Santiago Tepalcatlalpan, San Lucas Xochimanca, San Mateo Pochtla, San Miguel Topilejo, San Francisco Tlalnepantla, San Salvador Cuautenco, Santa Cecilia Ahuautla, San Andrés Ocoyoacac, San Lorenzo Tlatecpan, San Martín Tiatilpan, Santa Maria Nativitas Zacapan y Santa Cruz Acalpixcan. Major restoration work was done on the church in its decorative elements in the 1970s. This also included removing two schools that had been established on the large atrium area as well as banning commercial activities from the same.

The church maintains is very large atrium, which was common to monasteries during the evangelization efforts of the very early colonial period. These atriums were meant to hold large congregations of indigenous peoples, who were ministered to by very few monks. The side gate of the atrium has a mixture of Plateresque, Gothic and indigenous feature. The west gate has three arches, which represent the Spanish, indigenous and mestizo peoples of the area. This was the space where the first baptisms of the indigenous were done. The church/monastery complex is tall and has a fortress appearance, again something common for the time period.

The church interior conserves its original 16th century main altar, with four stories tall, contains indigenous, Italian, Flemish and Spanish influence and is covered in 24karat gold leaf. It contains a relief of San Bernardino surrounded by two groups of indigenous sculptures, who are helping to build the church. Above San Bernardino, there is a depiction of the Virgin of the Assumption and the Virgin of Xochimilco. The paintings represent episodes from the life of Jesus and have been attributed to Simon Pereyns and Andrés de la Concha. This is one of the few 16th-century altarpieces to have survived and the only one similar to it in size and construction is located in the monastery in Huejotzingo, Puebla.

There are seven other altarpieces, which date from the 16th to the 18th centuries. The one dedicated to Christ on the north side is from the 16th century, but it is incomplete at its base and sides. The one dedicated to the Holy Family dates from either the 17th or 18th centuries. Another dedicated to Christ on the south side is from the 16th or 17th century. One dedicated to Martin de Porres is notable because it has no columns.

The church’s only chapel serves as a tabernacle. This room contains a large painting of Calvary. There are also a large number of notable paintings by names such as Echave Orio, Simón Pereyns, Sánchez Salmerón Caravaggio, Francisco Martínez, Luis Arciniegas and Juan Martínez Monteñés. The baptismal fonts are decorated in acanthus leaves, among which is a pre-Hispanic style skull. The organ is Baroque from the 17th century. The pews are made of red cedar as are the two pulpits, all made by Juan Rojas in the 18th century.

The San Pedro Tlalnahuac Church was one of the first “poza” chapels (used for processions) built in Xochimilco, dating from 1533. The main church has a masonry façade. In front, a small paved yard contains a cross sculpted in wood and sandstone. A significant number of pre-Hispanic artifacts have been found on the grounds. It is located on Calle Pedro Ramírez del Castillo.

The La Asunción Colhuacatzinco Church is Neoclassical with arches serving as buttresses. It main altar is modern, from the end of the 20th century. This church is important due to its association with a number of traditions including the Burning of Judas on Easter Sunday and fireworks on frames called toritos. Good Friday is dedicated to the Holy Burial, with mayordomos sponsoring breakfast. It is located in the La Asunción neighborhood.

The Santa Crucita de Analco Church was first built in 1687 then rebuilt in Neoclassical style in 1860. Its main altar is modern. It has a chapel in which a number of films have been shot including one called María Candelaria.

The San Juan Bautista Tlateuhchi Church is fronted by a large juniper tree said to have been planted by Cuauhtémoc to commemorate the alliance of the Xochimilas with the Aztecs to fight the Spanish. The church has been through a number of restorations. It is located in the historic center of Xochimilco.

The Santa María de los Dolores Xaltocan Church is a Neoclassical building but its main altar is Plateresque and Baroque. This church is hosts a 20-day celebration of Carnival long with the surrounding neighborhoods and markets.

The Belem Church in the historic center dates from 1758. It has been renovated several times, with the last time in 1932.

The La Concepción de María Tlacoapa Church was originally part of a hospital, built by the Franciscans in the 17th century.

The El Rosario Nepantlatlaca is a chapel unique to the area, as its façade is decorated with tiles. It contains a notable painting of Saint Christopher from the 17th century. Originally, the chapel was dedicated to Saint Margaret. It was declared a Historic Monument in 1932.

The Francisco Caltongo Church is one of the farthest from the historic center of the borough in the Caltongo neighborhood. Its façade has a number of pre-Hispanic elements even though it was built in 1969.

The La Santisima Trinidad Chililico Church is noted for its equestrian statue of Saint James as well as its collection of documents related to Xochimilco’s history. It is located in the La Santisima neighborhood.

The San Esteban Tecpanpan Church was built on the site of a pre-Hispanic palace and ceremonial center. The current building was constructed in the middle of the 19th century. This building lost its original vault, but it was rebuilt in 1959 along with the bell tower. It is located in the San Esteban neighborhood.

The San Cristóbal Xalan Church is located in the San Cristóbal neighborhood, which is known for floriculture, including poppies that were brought from Europe. Since it blooms in spring, there was a day dedicated to the red poppy called the “Lunes de amapolas,“ which is the day after Easter Sunday. However, this tradition ended when poppy cultivation was banned in 1940.

The San Lorenzo Tlaltecpan Church is located in the San Lorenzo neighborhood, once known for its fishermen. They still specialize in a tamale with fish.

There are forty nine important mostly secular festivals through the year, with the most important being the Feria de la Nieve, Feria de la Alegría y el Olivo, and the Flor más Bellas del Ejido. The “Flor más Bella del Ejido” (Most Beautiful Flower of the Ejido or Field) pageant is a borough-wide event dedicated to fjthe beauty of Mexican indigenous women. The origins of this event are traced back over 220 years with symbolism that is based on the pre-Hispanic notion of a “flower-woman” representative of Mother Earth and fertility. This flower-woman is based on the goddess Xochiquetzal, the goddess of flowers and love, robbed from her husband Tlaloc by Tezcatlipoca. After the Conquest, this “flower-woman” symbol survived and would appear at certain Catholic festivals such as the Viernes de Dolores, or the Friday before Palm Sunday. An official pageant dedicated to this was established in 1786. Originally, its purpose was religious but it eventually became secularized. For this reason, the event was moved to a week before the Viernes de Dolores and then called the Viernes de las Amapolas. The event existed in this form for 170 years, with dancing, food, pulque, charros and pageants featuring china poblanas. In 1902, the tradition diminished as the last of the canals connecting the area with the Jamaica market closed. In 1921, the El Universal newspaper held a beauty pageant for the 100th anniversary of the end of the Mexican War of Independence, calling it “La India Bonita” dedicated to indigenous women. The first winner was María Bibiana Uribe. In 1936, another pageant was created for mestizo women called “la Flor Más Bella del Ejido” or the Most Beautiful Flower of the Ejido, which occurred each year on the Viernes de Dolores in the Santa Anita area. This event was moved to San Andres Mixquic in the 1950s, but the lack of crowds had it move again in 1955 to Xochimilco, where it remains.

The Feria de Nieve (Ices and Ice cream Fair) takes place in Santiago Tulyehualco each April. Flavored snow was consumed in the pre Hispanic period, eaten by the rich and made from snow from the nearby mountains and transported through this area. The consumption of this flavored snow continued into the colonial era and the first fair dedicated to it was established in 1529 by Martín de Valencia. The fair was celebrated sporadically until 1885 when there was renewed interest in it, making it an annual event. In 2009, the event had its 124th anniversary. During this time, new flavors and types of frozen confections have been invented. Some of the flavors are uncommon, such as rose petal, pulque, mole, spearmint, lettuce, shrimp and tequila. Many of these were developed by local resident Faustino Cicilia Mora.

The community of Santiago Tepalcatlalpan holds an annual corn festival, as it is still a significant producer of this crop. This event is called the Feria del Maiz y la Tortilla (Corn and Tortilla Fair) in May. It focuses on the traditional methods of preparing and eating the grain, such as in tortillas, gorditas, sopes, quesadillas, tlacoyos with various fillings and atole, especially a version flavored with chili peppers.

The Feria de la Alegría y el Olivo (“Alegria” and Olive Fair) has been an annual event since the 1970s in Santiago Tulyehualco. It is mostly based on a grain native to Mexico called amaranth. An “alegria” is a sweet made with this grain, honey with dried fruits and nuts sometimes added. However, the term is also used to refer to the plant that produces amaranth. An “olivo” is an olive tree. Amaranth was an important part of the pre-Hispanic diet, due to its nutritive qualities and its use in various ceremonies. This annual fair is dedicated to elaboration of this sweet along with olive products from the area. Over 250 producers of the grain offer their products in various preparations. There are also cultural events such as concerts.

The Feria Nacional del Dulce Cristalizado (National Crystallized Candy Fair) takes place each year in the Santa Cruz Acalpixca community at the Plaza Civica. This fair is dedicated to a traditional sweet of various fruits and sometimes plants, which are conserved in a sugar solution until they crystallize. These include squash, pineapple, nopal cactus, tomatoes, chili peppers, figs and more. These traditional sweets are often sold alongside others such as coconut confections, palanquetas de cacahuate (similar to peanut brittle), and nuez con leche (a nut-milk confection). These candies are the result of a blending of pre-Hispanic and European sweet traditions. The main European contributions are sugar and milk products, which are often mixed with native or other introduced ingredients. Originally, fruits and other foods were crystallized this way for conservation. Many in the community of Santa Cruz Acalpixca specialize in the making of one or more of these sweets, which began in 1927 with two shops belonging to Santiago Ramírez Olvera and Aurelio Mendoza in the Tepetitla neighborhood. In the 1980s, the town decided to hold an annual fair to promote their products, which originally was held in conjunction with the festival to the local patron saint. The event includes prizes for the best confections in several categories and the introduction of new types of candies.

Other events include the Carnival of Xochimilco, which was begun in 2004, to rescue the carnival tradition in the area. It consists of a series of musical concerts of various types, art exhibits, food and crafts displays and plays for children. There are also fairs dedicated to rabbits and poinsettias, as well as local civic celebrations to honor events such as the birth of poet Fernando Celada, the birth of Quirino Mendoza y Cortés, composer of “Cielito Lindo,” and the commemoration of the meeting of Francisco Villa and Emiliano Zapata on December 4 in this area.

Xochimilco has also traditionally held the Oktoberfest at the Club Alemán, which is located in the borough.

In Xochimilco was made film Sin Azul. Úrsula Murayama appeared in that film as Laura.

Since the pre-Hispanic period, Xochimilco’s economy has traditionally been based on agriculture, mostly by supplying to the needs of Mexico City. This not only dominated the economy but also the area’s religious practices, some of which can still be seen to the present day. Agriculture still remains important in the borough, but most of the focus has shifted to flowers and ornamental plants. One major reason for this is the poor quality of the area’s water supply. Xochimilco has four major markets dedicated to the sale of plants and flowers: Cuemanco, Palacio de la Flor, Mercado de Madre Selva and the historic market at San Luis Tlaxialtemalco. Cuemanco is the largest in Xochimilco and the largest of its kind in Latin America, covering thirteen hectares, with its own cactus garden and forms part of the ecological preserve of Cuemanco. The borough produces 2.5 million poinsettias each year, accounting for most of the 3.5 million sold each year in Mexico City. This represents an income for the borough of about 25 to 30 million pesos annually, grown by about 10,000 growers.

However, starting in the latter 20th century, most of area’s economy has shifted away from agriculture. One reason for this is the deterioration of the area’s environment. Plagues and poor planning have gravely affected the conservation area in Xochimilco, to the extent that many fruit trees traditionally grown here have disappeared, including capulins and peaches. Over the last forty years, the percentage of people in the borough working in agriculture has dropped from forty percent to three percent.

Xochimilco still has 3,562 units of agricultural production, accounting for 17.7% of the total of the Federal District. These cover 2,741.4 hectares of land or 11.4% of the District. 2741.4 hectares is farmland, with a much smaller amount dedicated to fishing and forestry. Xochimilco accounts for 90.8 percent of the flower production of the District, 76.9% of poinsettias, and all of the geraniums and roses grown here. It also grows about 40% of the District’s spinach crop, 24.6 of the figs, 8.7 of pears, 13.2 of pears and 9% of plums. As a producer of livestock, Xochimilco accounts for 36% of the cattle, 29.8% of the pig, 17.2 of sheep and 27.8% of the domestic fowl production of the District.

Most of the employed are in manufacturing (23.5%) commerce (39,7%) and services (33.3%). Over 91% of all businesses in the borough are related to commerce and services. However, manufacturing contributes to 61.8% of the borough GDP, with commerce at 18.9% and services at 18%. After agriculture, the most visible economic activity is tourism, which is considered part of commerce and services. The canals, chinampas and trajineras are the borough’s main tourist attraction. In February 2011, trajinera operators protested the existence of “clandestine” tour operators supposedly tolerated by authorities. There are supposedly as many as twenty five or thirty of these who pay bribes of 500 pesos a month to operate away from the six embarcaderos authorized by the borough. However, relative to the rest of the city, Xochimilco has a negligible amount of hotel infrastructure. There are no five star hotels. There are 183 four-star and 98 three-star hotels, but they represent only two percent and one percent respectively of the total for the city.

Aside from the canals and trajineras, the best known attraction in Xochimilco is the Dolores Olmedo Museum. This museum was once the home of socialite Dolores Olmedo. Before this, it was the main house of the La Noria Hacienda, established in the 17th century. Before she died, Ms. Olmedo decided to donate her house, much of what was in it and her art collection to the public as a museum. The buildings are surrounded by gardens planted with native Mexican species, around which wander peacocks. Another area houses a number of xoloitzcuintle dog. The museum’s collection includes about 600 pre Hispanic pieces, the largest collection of works by Diego Rivera at 140 pieces, as well as a number of works by Frida Kahlo and Angelina Beloff. It also contains rooms filled with furniture, items from many parts of the world and everyday items used by Olmedo and her family. In November, the museum set up a monumental altar to the dead.

The Museo Arqueológico de Xochimilco (Archeological Museum of Xochimilco) began as a collection of pre-Hispanic artifacts such as ceramics, stone items, bones, and more that had been found in the area, often during construction projects. In 1965, the museum began to display these items to the public. In 1974, the collection moved permanently to a late 19th-century house, which was restored in the 1980s and inaugurated under its current name. This collection contains 2,441 pieces, mostly ceramic and stone objects, including figures, cooking utensils, arrowheads. It is located on Avenida Tenochtitlán in Santa Cruz Acalpixca. Located to one side is one of the fresh water springs that feed the canals. On the other sides are gardens.

Near the archeological museum is a site called Cuahilama. It is a hill that rises about fifty meters above the lakebed. The site consists of terraces and twelve petroglyphs that date to about 1500. The most important of these is called the Nahualapa, a map that contains the locations of 56 sources of water, Lake Xochimilco, eight buildings and a large quantity of roads and paths.

As much of the borough is still classified as an ecological reserve, there are a number of green areas open to the public. These include several “forests” such as the Bosque de Nativitas, the Xochimilco Ecological Reserve, the Centro Acuexcomatl, and Michmani Ecotourism Park. There are several parks designated as forests such as the Bosque de Nativitas and the Bosque de San Luis Tlaxialtemaco. These are considered “areas of environmental value” by the city and established to counter some of the damage caused by urban sprawl in Xochimilco. These areas are open to the public but with minimal services such as picnic tables and horseback riding. The largest ecological area is the Xochimilco Ecological Reserve, inaugurated in 1993. It covers over 200 hectares and is filled with numerous plant and animal species that live or migrate here. The park also contains a bike path, thirty five athletic fields, a flower market and a visitor center. It is second in size only to Chapultepec Park. It is also possible to travel in some of the canals here by trajinera. The Centro de Educación Ambiental Acuexcomatl (Acuexcomatl Environmental Education Center) is located on the road between Xochimilco center and Tulyehualco. It contains fish farms, beekeeping, plant nurseries and greenhouses as well as sports facilities, classrooms, workshops, an auditorium, an open-air theatre and a cafeteria. It is in Colonia Quirino Mendoza. Michmani is an ecotourism program sponsored by the borough, which is situated on fifty hectares of chinampas. The site offers kayaking, recreational fishing, a temazcal, cabin rentals and environmental education.

The crater of the Teoca volcano has a sports facility with jai alai, gymnasiums and a soccer field.

The Virgilio Uribe rowing tracks was built for the 1968 Olympics in one of the canals. It measures two km long and 125 meters (410 ft) wide. It is still used for canoeing, kayaking and rowing.

The Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana was established in 1974 in Xochimilco under Mexican president Luis Echeverría to meet the growing demand for public university education in the city. Currently, the institution has three campuses in the Federal District, in Azcapotzalco, Iztapalapa and Xochimilco and it is composed of several academic divisions. These divisions include the División de Ciencias y Artes para el Diseño, División de Ciencias Biológicas y de la Salud and the División de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades. The institution offers about twenty bachelor’s degrees, an equal number of master’s and doctorate degrees as well as a number of certificate programs.

The Escuela Nacional de Artes Plásticas (National School of Fine Arts) was originally established as the San Carlos Academy in the historic center of Mexico City during the late colonial era in 1781. The school became the most prestigious art academy in Mexico after Independence in the 19th century. In 1910, the school was incorporated into the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. In the 1970s, the school divided into an undergraduate and graduate division and in 1979, the undergraduate division moved to a new campus in Xochimilco, leaving the graduate studies at the traditional site in the historic center. ENAP remains as the country’s largest and most prestigious art education institution.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Geography

Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico sometimes called the Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico. Seismic activity is frequent here.

It has a minimum altitude of 2,240 meters above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters. Mexico City has an area of 1,495 square km.

This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making the city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century.

Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco, a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside the Federal District, in the municipality of Atenco, State of Mexico.

The Aztecs built dikes to separate the freshwater used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during the siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods.

Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed’s heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater-related subsidence.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, the city has sunk as much as nine meters in some areas. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during the rainy season.

The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city’s remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta, Tlalpan, and Xochimilco.

Climate

Mexico City has a subtropical highland climate, due to its tropical location but high elevation.

The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 °C. The temperature is rarely below 3 °C or above 30 °C. Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months and includes dense hail.

The Central Valley of Mexico rarely gets snow during winter.

The area has two main seasons.

The rainy season runs from June to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, and the wettest month is July.

The dry season runs from November to May, when the air is relatively drier, and the driest month is December. This dry season is subdivided into a cold period and a warm period.

The cold period spans from November to February when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry.

The warm period extends from March to May when tropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain.

Pollution

By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world’s most polluted cities. However, the city has become a model for dramatically lowering pollution levels.

By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped dramatically, while levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were nearly three times lower than in 1992.

To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides. When the levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the day without a car program to two days of the week.

The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection, and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels. The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and the Ecobici bike-sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation.

Historically, and since pre-Columbian times, the Valley of Anahuac has been one of the most densely populated areas in Mexico. When the Federal District was created in 1824, the urban area of Mexico City extended approximately to the area of today’s Cuauhtémoc borough.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the elites began migrating to the south and west and soon the small towns of Mixcoac and San Ángel were incorporated by the growing conurbation.

In 1921, Mexico City had less than one million inhabitants.

Up to the 1990s, the Federal District was the most populous federal entity in Mexico, but since then its population has remained stable at around 8.7 million. The growth of the city has extended beyond the limits of the Federal District to 59 municipalities in the state of Mexico and 1 in the state of Hidalgo.

With a population of approximately 19.8 million inhabitants (2008), it is one of the most populous conurbations in the world.

According to a genetic study done in 2011, the average genetic composition of people from Mexico City is 65% Native American, 31% European, and 3% African.

Historically since the era of New Spain, many Filipinos settled in the city and have become integrated in Mexican society. While no official figures have been reported, population estimates of each of these communities are quite significant.

Mexico City is home to the largest population of U.S. Americans living outside the United States. Current estimates are as high as 700,000 U.S. Americans living in Mexico City.

The name of México has several hypotheses that entail the origin, history, and use of the name México, which dates back to 14th century Mesoamerica.

The Nahuatl word Mexico means place of the Mexica but the ethnonym Mexicatl itself is of unknown etymology.

An alternate possibility is that the name “Mexico” may come from the word mexixin, a cress that grew in the swamplands of Lake Texcoco. It was an edible grass that the Aztecs or Mexica survived on as they settled where today lies México City.

The country México did not name its capital after itself, as in Mexico City – the accepted name internationally – but the converse actually applies.

Before Spanish times, the capital was formally named Tenochtitlan, but was the seat of the Mexica Empire which is known as the Aztec Empire.

As far back as 1590, the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum atlas showed that the northern part of the New World was known as “America Mexicana” (Mexican America), as México City was the seat for the New Spain viceroyalty.

New Spain is mistaken as the old name for México, rather than the name of a large expanse of land that covered much of North America and included the Caribbean and the Philippines.

Since New Spain was not actually a state or a contiguous part of land, in modern times it would have been a Jurisdiction under the command of the authorities in modern Mexico City.

Under the Spaniards, Mexico was both the name of the capital and its sphere of influence, most of which exists as Greater Mexico City and the State of Mexico. Some parts of Puebla, Morelos and Hidalgo were also part of Spanish-era Mexico.

CDMX

Complications arose with the capital’s former colloquial and semi-official name “Ciudad de Mexico, Distrito Federal” or “Mexico, D.F.”, which appears on postal addresses and is frequently cited in the media, thus creating a duplication whereas the shortened name was “Mexico, D.F., Mexico”. Legally, the name was simply Distrito Federal (Federal District or District of the Federation).

Since 2013, to refer to the City particularly in relation to government campaigns, the abbreviation CDMX has been used (from Ciudad de México).

This ended with the change in the statute of Mexico City into a state in 2016. Today it’s officially called only “Ciudad de México, México” abbreviated CDMX, Mexico.

Nicknames

Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios (“the City of the Palaces”), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Europe, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe.

During Andrés López Obrador’s administration, a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza (“The City of Hope”). This motto was quickly adopted as a city nickname but has faded since the new motto Capital en Movimiento (“Capital in Movement”) was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard, though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media.

The city is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals’ nickname chilangos. Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to “connote a loud, arrogant, ill-mannered, loutish person”.

For their part, those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia (“the provinces”, the periphery) and many proudly embrace the term chilango.

Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from the postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish “DF” which is read “De-Efe”). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but “perhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized”.

Aztec period

The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. The old Mexica city that is now simply referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico, which it shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco.

According to legend, the Mexicas’ principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a nopal cactus with a snake in its beak.

Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico.

When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean.

Spanish conquest

After landing in Veracruz, Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on November 8, 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa, and the city’s ruler, Moctezuma II, greeted the Spaniards. They exchanged gifts, but the camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him.

Tensions increased until, on the night of June 30, 1520 – during a struggle known as “La Noche Triste” – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies.

Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died. The next king was Cuauhtémoc.

Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521.

For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city.

Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest.

Rebuilding

Cortés first settled in Coyoacán but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule but remained loyal to the Spanish crown.

The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state, having power that extended far beyond its borders.

Although the Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan’s basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves.

Tenochtitlan was renamed “Mexico” because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce.

Growth of Colonial Mexico City

The city had been the capital of the Aztec empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain. The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in the viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo.

The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral, the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop’s palace, and across from it the building housing the City Council or ayuntamiento of the city.

A famous late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been the old Aztec ceremonial center.

The existing central place of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed into the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central place of the nation.

The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia, one of the Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period:

The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem.

The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they were very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, falling from high places, or tearing down old buildings for new ones.

Preconquest Tenochtitlan was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor.

Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward.

The Spanish lived in the area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza, in orderly, well-laid-out streets. Indian residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located.

Spaniards sought to keep Indians separate from Spaniards but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Indians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced.

At intervals, Zócalo was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, and the other in 1692.

The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake’s waters.

As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe, compelled thousands of Indians over the colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding.

Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city’s streets.

By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for Indian cultivation close to the capital.

The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center. Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru, Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success.

The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in a way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one’s power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities, and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in the last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City’s nickname of “The City of Palaces” given by Alexander Von Humboldt.

The Grito de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”), also known as El Grito de la Independencia (“Cry of Independence”), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of the insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico’s independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on September 27, 1821. Unrest followed for the next several decades, as different factions fought for control of Mexico.

The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by the signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution. Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco and then Toluca became the capital of the state of Mexico.

The Battle of Mexico City in the U.S.–Mexican War of 1847

The Battle for Mexico City was a series of engagements from September 8 to 15, 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S.-Mexican War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on August 8 where the Saint Patrick’s Battalion, which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants, but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexican people, fought for the Mexican cause repelling the American attacks. After defeating the Saint Patrick’s Battalion, the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army’s 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Divisions. The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself.

During this battle, on September 13, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the “Boy Heroes”). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterward. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in what is now the far north of the city.

Porfirian era (1876–1911)

Events such as the Mexican–American War, the French Intervention, and the Reform War left the city relatively untouched and it continued to grow, especially during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz.

During this time the city developed a modern infrastructure, such as roads, schools, transportation systems, and communication systems. However, the regime concentrated resources and wealth in the city while the rest of the country languished in poverty.

Under the rule of Porfirio Díaz, Mexico City experienced a massive transformation.

Díaz’s goal was to create a city that could rival the great European cities. He and his government came to the conclusion that they would use Paris as a model, while still containing remnants of Amerindian and Hispanic elements.

This style of Mexican-French fusion architecture became colloquially known as Porfirian Architecture. Porfirian architecture became very influenced by Paris’ Haussmannization.

During this era of Porfirian rule, the city underwent an extensive modernization.

Many Spanish Colonial-style buildings were destroyed, replaced by new much larger Porfirian institutions, and many outlying rural zones were transformed into urban or industrialized districts with most having electrical, gas, and sewage utilities by 1908.

While the initial focus was on developing modern hospitals, schools, factories, and massive public works, perhaps the most long-lasting effects of the Porfirian modernization were the creation of the Colonia Roma area and the development of Reforma Avenue.

Many of Mexico City’s major attractions and landmarks were built during this era in this style.

Diaz’s plans called for the entire city to eventually be modernized or rebuilt in the Porfirian/French style of the Colonia Roma; but the Mexican Revolution began soon afterward and the plans never came to fruition, with many projects being left half-completed.

One of the best examples of this is the Monument to the Mexican Revolution.

Originally the monument was to be the main dome of Diaz’s new senate hall, but when the revolution erupted only the dome of the senate hall and its supporting pillars were completed, this was subsequently seen as a symbol by many Mexicans that the Porfirian era was over once and for all and as such, it was turned into a monument to victory over Diaz.

Mexican Revolution (1910–1920)

The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution. The most significant episode of this period for the city was the February 1913 La decena trágica (“The Ten Tragic Days”), when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from the army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta, chief general of the Federal Army, saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison. Huerta’s ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of the armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata, but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza’s Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace.

20th century to present

The history of the rest of the 20th century to the present focuses on the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences. In 1900, the population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city’s first skyscraper. The 1968 Olympic Games brought about the construction of large sporting facilities.

In 1969 the Metro system was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring state of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city’s population more than doubled to nearly 9 million.

In 1980 half of all the industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city’s problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shantytowns that extended for many miles. This caused serious air pollution in Mexico City and water pollution problems, as well as subsidence due to over-extraction of groundwater. Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs, the renovation of vehicles, and the modernization of public transportation.

The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to the massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco.

Three years later, a demonstration in Maestros Avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called “Los Halcones”, composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the U.S.

On Thursday, September 19, 1985, at 07:19, Mexico City was struck by an earthquake of magnitude 8.1 on the Richter magnitude scale. Although this earthquake was not as deadly or destructive as many similar events in Asia and other parts of Latin America, it proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party government.

The government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well.

However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year, the presidency was set between the P.R.I.’s candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left-wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas. The counting system “fell” because coincidentally the light went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand.

As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became a member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution. Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997.

Cárdenas promised a more democratic government, and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency.

Mexico City is a destination for many foreign tourists.

The Historic center of Mexico City (Centro Histórico) and the “floating gardens” of Xochimilco in the southern borough have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.

Famous landmarks in the Historic Center include the Plaza de la Constitución (Zócalo), the main central square.
During the winter, the main square of the Zócalo is transformed into a gigantic ice skating rink, which is said to be the largest in the world behind that of Moscow’s Red Square.

Metropolitan Cathedral and National Palace, ancient Aztec temple ruins Templo Mayor (“Major Temple”), and modern structures, all within a few steps of one another. The Templo Mayor was discovered in 1978 while workers were digging to place underground electric cables.

The most recognizable icon of Mexico City is the golden Angel of Independence on the wide, elegant avenue Paseo de la Reforma, modeled by the order of Emperor Maximilian of Mexico after the Champs-Élysées in Paris.

This avenue was designed over the Americas’ oldest known major roadway in the 19th century to connect the National Palace (seat of government) with the Castle of Chapultepec, the imperial residence. Today, this avenue is an important financial district in which the Mexican Stock Exchange and several corporate headquarters are located.

Another important avenue is the Avenida de los Insurgentes, which extends 28.8 km (17.9 mi) and is one of the longest single avenues in the world.

Chapultepec Park houses the Chapultepec Castle, now a museum on a hill that overlooks the park and its numerous museums, monuments, and the National Zoo and the National Museum of Anthropology (which houses the Aztec Calendar Stone).

Another piece of architecture is the Fine Arts Palace, a white marble theatre/museum whose weight is such that it has gradually been sinking into the soft ground below. Its construction began during the presidency of Porfirio Díaz and ended in 1934, after being interrupted by the Mexican Revolution in the 1920s.

The Plaza of the Three Cultures in the Tlatelolco neighborhood, and the shrine and Basilicas of Our Lady of Guadalupe are also important sites.

There is a double-decker bus, known as the “Turibus”, that circles most of these sites, and has timed audio describing the sites in multiple languages as they are passed.

In addition, the city has about 160 museums—the world’s greatest single metropolitan concentration —over 100 art galleries, and some 30 concert halls, all of which maintain a constant cultural activity during the whole year.

It has either the third or fourth-highest number of theatres in the world after New York, London, and perhaps Toronto.

Many areas (e.g. Palacio Nacional and the National Institute of Cardiology) have murals painted by Diego Rivera. He and his wife Frida Kahlo lived in Coyoacán, where several of their homes, studios, and art collections are open to the public.

The house where Leon Trotsky was initially granted asylum and finally murdered in 1940 is also in Coyoacán.

In addition, there are several restored haciendas that are now restaurants, such as the San Ángel Inn, the Hacienda de Tlalpan, and the Hacienda de los Morales.

Museums

Mexico City has numerous museums dedicated to art, including Mexican colonial, modern and contemporary art, and international art.

• The Museo Tamayo was opened in the mid-1980s to house the collection of international contemporary art donated by famed Mexican (born in the state of Oaxaca) painter Rufino Tamayo. The collection includes pieces by Picasso, Klee, Kandinsky, Warhol, and many others, though most of the collection is stored while visiting exhibits are shown.
• The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is a repository of Mexican artists from the 20th century, including Rivera, Orozco, Siqueiros, Kahlo, Gerzso, Carrington, Tamayo, among others, and also regularly hosts temporary exhibits of international modern art.
• In southern Mexico City, the Museo Carrillo Gil (Carrillo Gil Museum) showcases avant-garde artists, as does the University Museum/Contemporary Art (Museo Universitario Arte Contemporáneo – or MUAC), designed by famed Mexican architect Teodoro González de León, inaugurated in late 2008.
• The Museo Soumaya, named after the wife of Mexican magnate Carlos Slim, has the largest private collection of original Rodin sculptures outside Paris. It also has a large collection of Dalí sculptures, and recently began showing pieces in its masters’ collection including El Greco, Velázquez, Picasso, and Canaletto. The museum inaugurated a new futuristic-design facility in 2011 just north of Polanco, while maintaining a smaller facility in Plaza Loreto in southern Mexico City.
• The Colección Júmex is a contemporary art museum located on the sprawling grounds of the Jumex juice company in the northern industrial suburb of Ecatepec. It is said to have the largest private contemporary art collection in Latin America and hosts pieces from its permanent collection as well as traveling exhibits by leading contemporary artists.
• The new Museo Júmex in Nuevo Polanco was slated to open in November 2013.
• The Museo de San Ildefonso, housed in the Antiguo Colegio de San Ildefonso in Mexico City’s historic downtown district is a 17th-century colonnaded palace housing an art museum that regularly hosts world-class exhibits of Mexican and international art. Recent exhibits have included those on David LaChapelle, Antony Gormley, and Ron Mueck.
• The National Museum of Art (Museo Nacional de Arte) is also located in a former palace in the historic center. It houses a large collection of pieces by all major Mexican artists of the last 400 years and also hosts visiting exhibits.
  Jack Kerouac, the noted American author, spent extended periods of time in the city and wrote his masterpiece volume of poetry Mexico City Blues here. Another American author, William S. Burroughs, also lived in the Colonia Roma neighborhood of the city for some time. It was here that he accidentally shot his wife.
• Another major addition to the city’s museum scene is the Museum of Remembrance and Tolerance (Museo de la Memoria y Tolerancia), inaugurated in early 2011. The brainchild of two young Mexican women as a Holocaust museum, the idea morphed into a unique museum dedicated to showcasing all major historical events of discrimination and genocide. Permanent exhibits include those on the Holocaust and other large-scale atrocities. It also houses temporary exhibits; one on Tibet was inaugurated by the Dalai Lama in September 2011.

Most of Mexico City’s more than 150 museums can be visited from Tuesday to Sunday from 10:00 to 17:00, although some of them have extended schedules, such as the Museum of Anthropology and History, which is open to 19:00.
In addition to this, entrance to most museums is free on Sunday.
In some cases, a modest fee may be charged.

Music, theater, and entertainment

Mexico City is home to a number of orchestras offering seasonal programs.

• Mexico City Philharmonic, which performs at the Sala Ollin Yoliztli
• National Symphony Orchestra, whose home base is the Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of the Fine Arts), a masterpiece of art nouveau and art decó styles
• Philharmonic Orchestra of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (OFUNAM) which performs at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl
• Minería Symphony Orchestra also performs at the Sala Nezahualcóyotl, which was the first wrap-around concert hall of the world’s western hemisphere when inaugurated in 1976

There are also many smaller ensembles that enrich the city’s musical scene

• Carlos Chávez Youth Symphony, the New World Orchestra (Orquesta del Nuevo Mundo)
• National Polytechnical Symphony
• Bellas Artes Chamber Orchestra (Orquesta de Cámara de Bellas Artes)

The city is also a leading center of popular culture and music. There are a multitude of venues hosting Spanish and foreign-language performers. These include the 10,000-seat National Auditorium that regularly schedules Spanish and English-language pop and rock artists, as well as many of the world’s leading performing arts ensembles, the auditorium also broadcasts Grand Opera performances from New York’s Metropolitan Opera on giant, high-definition screens. In 2007 National Auditorium was selected world’s best venue by multiple genre media.

Other Cultural centers

Other popular sites for pop artist performances include the 3,000-seat Teatro Metropolitan, the 15,000-seat Palacio de los Deportes, and the larger 50,000-seat Foro Sol Stadium, where popular international artists perform on a regular basis.

The Cirque du Soleil has held several seasons at the Carpa Santa Fe, in the Santa Fe district in the western part of the city.

There are numerous venues for smaller musical ensembles and solo performers. These include the Hard Rock Live, Bataclán, Foro Scotiabank, Lunario, Circo Volador and Voilá Acoustique.

Recent additions include the 20,000-seat Arena Ciudad de México, the 3,000-seat Pepsi Center World Trade Center, and the 2,500-seat Auditorio Blackberry.

The Centro Nacional de las Artes (National Center for the Arts has several venues for music, theatre, and dance.

UNAM’s main campus, also in the southern part of the city, is home to the Centro Cultural Universitario (the University Culture Center) (CCU).

The CCU also houses the National Library, the interactive Universum, Museo de las Ciencias, the Sala Nezahualcóyotl concert hall, several theatres and cinemas, and the new University Museum of Contemporary Art (MUAC).

A branch of the National University’s CCU cultural center was inaugurated in 2007 in the facilities of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, known as Tlatelolco, in north-central Mexico City.

The José Vasconcelos Library, a national library, is located on the grounds of the former Buenavista railroad station in the northern part of the city.

The Papalote children’s museum, which houses the world’s largest dome screen, is located in the wooded park of Chapultepec, near the Museo Tecnológico, and La Feria amusement park.

The Cineteca Nacional (the Mexican Film Library), near the Coyoacán suburb, shows a variety of films, and stages many film festivals, including the annual International Showcase, and many smaller ones ranging from Scandinavian and Uruguayan cinema to Jewish and LGBT-themed films.

Cinépolis and Cinemex, the two biggest film business chains, also have several film festivals throughout the year, with both national and international movies.

Mexico City tops the world in a number of IMAX theatres, providing residents and visitors access to films ranging from documentaries to popular blockbusters on these especially large, dramatic screens.

• Chapultepec Park, the city’s most iconic public park, has a history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of the Polanco district and houses the city’s zoo, several ponds, seven museums including the National Museum of Anthropology, and the oldest and most traditional amusement park, La Feria de Chapultepec Mágico, with its vintage Montaña Rusa rollercoaster.
• Other iconic city parks include the Alameda Central, Mexico City historic center, a city park since colonial times and renovated in 2013.
• Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district.
• Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle.
• Parque Lincoln in Polanco.

There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small “squares” occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts.

Several other larger parks such as the Bosque de Tlalpan and Viveros de Coyoacán, and in the east Alameda Oriente, offer many recreational activities.

• Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón.
• In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market, a World Heritage site.
• West of the Santa Fe district are the pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park.

Amusement parks include Six Flags México, in the Ajusco neighborhood, in Tlalpan borough, which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city.

Zoos

Mexico City has three zoos:

• Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in the Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924. Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant pandas, gorillas, caracals, hyenas, hippos, jaguars, giraffes, lemurs, and lions, among others.
• Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and the Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, and hippo, among others.
• Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68-acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on February 2, 1999. It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from Mexico City. You can admire eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, and white-tailed deer.

Mexico City offers a variety of cuisines. Restaurants specializing in the regional cuisines of Mexico’s 31 states are available in the city. Also available are an array of international cuisines, vegetarian and vegan cuisines are also available, as are restaurants solely based on the concepts of local food and slow food.

Mexico City is known for having some of the freshest fish and seafood in Mexico’s interior. La Nueva Viga Market is the second largest seafood market in the world after the Tsukiji fish market in Japan.

The city also has several branches of renowned international restaurants and chefs. These include Paris’ Au Pied de Cochon and Brasserie Lipp, Philippe (by Philippe Chow); Nobu, Morimoto; and Pámpano, owned by Mexican-raised opera legend Plácido Domingo.

There are branches of the exclusive Japanese restaurant Suntory, Rome’s famed Alfredo, as well as New York steakhouses Morton’s and The Palm, and Monte Carlo’s BeefBar. Three of the most famous Lima-based Haute Peruvian restaurants, La Mar, Segundo Muelle and Astrid y Gastón have locations in Mexico City.

For the 2014 list of the World’s 50 Best Restaurants as named by the British magazine Restaurant, Mexico City ranked with the Mexican avant-garde restaurant Pujol at 20th best. Also notable is the Basque-Mexican fusion restaurant Biko, which placed outside the list at 59th, but in previous years has ranked within the top 50.

Mexico’s award-winning wines are offered at many restaurants, and the city offers unique experiences for tasting the regional spirits, with broad selections of tequila and mezcal.

At the other end of the scale are working-class pulque bars known as pulquerías, a challenge for tourists to locate and experience.

Mexico City offers an immense and varied consumer retail market, ranging from basic foods to ultra high-end luxury goods. Consumers may buy in fixed indoor markets, mobile markets (tianguis), from street vendors, from downtown shops in a street dedicated to a certain type of good, in convenience stores and traditional neighborhood stores, in modern supermarkets, in warehouse and membership stores and the shopping centers that they anchor, in department stores, big-box stores and in modern shopping malls.

Traditional markets

The city’s main source of fresh produce is the Central de Abasto. This in itself is a self-contained mini-city in Iztapalapa borough covering an area equivalent to several dozen city blocks. The wholesale market supplies most of the city’s “mercados”, supermarkets and restaurants, as well as people who come to buy the produce for themselves. Tons of fresh produce are trucked in from all over Mexico every day.

The principal fish market is known as La Nueva Viga, in the same complex as the Central de Abastos. The world-renowned market of Tepito occupies 25 blocks, and sells a variety of products.

A staple for consumers in the city is the omnipresent “mercado”. Every major neighborhood in the city has its own borough-regulated market, often more than one. These are large well-established facilities offering most basic products, such as fresh produce and meat/poultry, dry goods, tortillerías, and many other services such as locksmiths, herbal medicine, hardware goods, sewing implements; and a multitude of stands offering freshly made, home-style cooking and drinks in the tradition of aguas frescas and atole.

Tianguis

In addition, “tianguis” or mobile markets set up shop on streets in many neighborhoods, depending on day of week. Sundays see the largest number of these markets.

Street vendors

Street vendors ply their trade from stalls in the tianguis as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at plazas comerciales, where vendors of a certain “theme” (e.g. stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk. In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground. In the centre of the city informal street vendors are increasingly targeted by laws and prosecution.

Downtown shopping

The Historic Center of Mexico City is widely known for specialized, often low-cost retailers. Certain blocks or streets are dedicated to shops selling a certain type of merchandise, with areas dedicated to over 40 categories such as home appliances, lamps and electricals, closets and bathrooms, housewares, wedding dresses, jukeboxes, printing, office furniture and safes, books, photography, jewelry, and opticians. The main department stores are also represented downtown.

Traditional markets downtown include the La Merced Market; the Mercado de Jamaica specializes in fresh flowers, the Mercado de Sonora in the occult, and La Lagunilla in furniture.

Ethnic shopping areas are located in Chinatown, downtown along Calle Dolores, but Mexico City’s Koreatown, or Pequeño Seúl, is located in the Zona Rosa.

Supermarkets and neighborhood stores

Large, modern chain supermarkets, hypermarkets and warehouse clubs including Soriana, Comercial Mexicana, Chedraui, Bodega Aurrerá, Walmart and Costco, are located across the city. Many anchor shopping centers that contain smaller shops, services, a food court and sometimes cinemas.

Small “mom-and-pop” corner stores (“abarroterías” or more colloquially as “changarros”) abound in all neighborhoods, rich and poor. These are small shops offering basics such as soft drinks, packaged snacks, canned goods and dairy products. Thousands of C-stores or corner stores, such as Oxxo, 7-Eleven and Extra are located throughout the city.

Federal District

The Acta Constitutiva de la Federación of January 31, 1824, and the Federal Constitution of October 4, 1824, fixed the political and administrative organization of the United Mexican States after the Mexican War of Independence. In addition, Section XXVIII of Article 50 gave the new Congress the right to choose where the federal government would be located. This location would then be appropriated as federal land, with the federal government acting as the local authority. The two main candidates to become the capital were Mexico City and Querétaro.

Due in large part to the persuasion of representative Servando Teresa de Mier, Mexico City was chosen because it was the center of the country’s population and history, even though Querétaro was closer to the center geographically. The choice was official on November 18, 1824, and Congress delineated a surface area of two leagues square (8,800 acres) centered on the Zocalo. This area was then separated from the State of Mexico, forcing that state’s government to move from the Palace of the Inquisition (now Museum of Mexican Medicine) in the city to Texcoco. This area did not include the population centers of the towns of Coyoacán, Xochimilco, Mexicaltzingo and Tlalpan, all of which remained as part of the State of Mexico.

In 1854 president Antonio López de Santa Anna enlarged the area of the Federal District almost eightfold from the original 220 to 1,700 km2 (80 to 660 sq mi), annexing the rural and mountainous areas to secure the strategic mountain passes to the south and southwest to protect the city in event of a foreign invasion. (The Mexican–American War had just been fought.) The last changes to the limits of the Federal District were made between 1898 and 1902, reducing the area to the current 1,479 km2 (571 sq mi) by adjusting the southern border with the state of Morelos. By that time, the total number of municipalities within the Federal District was twenty-two.

While the Federal District was ruled by the federal government through an appointed governor, the municipalities within it were autonomous, and this duality of powers created tension between the municipalities and the federal government for more than a century. In 1903, Porfirio Díaz largely reduced the powers of the municipalities within the Federal District. Eventually, in December 1928, the federal government decided to abolish all the municipalities of the Federal District. In place of the municipalities, the Federal District was divided into one “Central Department” and 13 delegaciones (boroughs) administered directly by the government of the Federal District. The Central Department was integrated by the former municipalities of Mexico City, Tacuba, Tacubaya and Mixcoac.

In 1941, the General Anaya borough was merged to the Central Department, which was then renamed “Mexico City” (thus reviving the name, but not the autonomous municipality). From 1941 to 1970, the Federal District comprised twelve delegaciones and Mexico City. In 1970 Mexico City was split into four different delegaciones: Cuauhtémoc, Miguel Hidalgo, Venustiano Carranza and Benito Juárez, increasing the number of delegaciones to sixteen. Since then, in a de facto manner, the whole Federal District, whose delegaciones had by then almost formed a single urban area, began to be considered a synonym of Mexico City.

The lack of a de jure stipulation left a legal vacuum that led to a number of sterile discussions about whether one concept had engulfed the other or if the latter had ceased to exist altogether. In 1993 this situation was solved by an amendment to the 44th article of the Constitution whereby Mexico City and the Federal District were set to be the same entity. This amendment was later introduced into the second article of the Statute of Government of the Federal District.

Political structure

Mexico City, being the seat of the powers of the Union, did not belong to any particular state but to all. Therefore, it was the president, representing the federation, who used to designate the head of government of the Federal District, a position which is sometimes presented outside Mexico as the “Mayor” of Mexico City. In the 1980s, given the dramatic increase in population of the previous decades, the inherent political inconsistencies of the system, as well as the dissatisfaction with the inadequate response of the federal government after the 1985 earthquake, residents began to request political and administrative autonomy to manage their local affairs. Some political groups even proposed that the Federal District be converted into the 32nd state of the federation.

In response to the demands, in 1987 the Federal District received a greater degree of autonomy, with the elaboration the first Statute of Government (Estatuto de Gobierno), and the creation of an Assembly of Representatives. In the 1990s, this autonomy was further expanded and, starting from 1997, residents can directly elect the head of government of the Federal District and the representatives of a unicameral Legislative Assembly (which succeeded the previous Assembly) by popular vote.

The first elected head of government was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. Cárdenas resigned in 1999 to run in the 2000 presidential elections and designated Rosario Robles to succeed him, who became the first woman (elected or otherwise) to govern Mexico City. In 2000 Andrés Manuel López Obrador was elected, and resigned in 2005 to run in the 2006 presidential elections, Alejandro Encinas being designated by the Legislative Assembly to finish the term. In 2006, Marcelo Ebrard was elected for the 2006–2012 period.

The Federal District does not have a constitution, like the states of the Union, but rather a Statute of Government. As part of its recent changes in autonomy, the budget is administered locally; it is proposed by the head of government and approved by the Legislative Assembly. Nonetheless, it is the Congress of the Union that sets the ceiling to internal and external public debt issued by the Federal District.

According to the 44th article of the Mexican Constitution, in case the powers of the Union move to another city, the Federal District will be transformed into a new state, which will be called “State of the Valley of Mexico”, with the new limits set by the Congress of the Union.

Boroughs and neighborhoods

For administrative purposes, the Federal District was divided into 16 municipalities (previously called boroughs).

Given that Mexico City is organized entirely as a Federal District, most of the city services are provided or organized by the Government of the Federal District and not by the boroughs themselves, while in the constituent states these services would be provided by the municipalities.

• 01. Álvaro Obregón (727,034)
• 02. Azcapotzalco (414,711)
• 03. Benito Juárez (385,439)
• 04. Coyoacán (620,416)
• 05. Cuajimalpa (186,391)
• 06. Cuauhtémoc (531,831)
• 07. Gustavo A. Madero (1,185,772)
• 08. Iztacalco (384,326)
• 09. Iztapalapa (1,815,786)
• 10. Magdalena Contreras (239,086)
• 11. Miguel Hidalgo (372,889)
• 12. Milpa Alta (130,582)
• 13. Tláhuac (360,265)
• 14. Tlalpan (650,567)
• 15. Venustiano Carranza (430,978)
• 16. Xochimilco (415,007)

The boroughs are composed by hundreds of colonias or neighborhoods, which have no jurisdictional autonomy or representation.

The Historic Center is the oldest part of the city (along with some other, formerly separate colonial towns such as Coyoacán and San Ángel), some of the buildings dating back to the 16th century.

Other well-known central neighborhoods include Condesa, known for its Art Deco architecture and its restaurant scene.

Colonia Roma, a beaux arts neighborhood and artistic and culinary hot-spot.

Zona Rosa, formerly the center of nightlife and restaurants, now reborn as the center of the LGBT and Korean-Mexican communities.

Also Tepito and La Lagunilla, known for their local working-class foklore and large flea markets.

Santa María la Ribera and San Rafael are the latest neighborhoods of magnificent Porfiriato architecture seeing the first signs of gentrification.

West of the Historic Center (Centro Histórico) along Paseo de la Reforma are many of the city’s wealthiest neighborhoods such as Polanco, Lomas de Chapultepec, Bosques de las Lomas, Santa Fe, and (in the State of Mexico) Interlomas, which are also the city’s most important areas of class A office space, corporate headquarters, skyscrapers and shopping malls.

Nevertheless, areas of lower income colonias exist in some cases cheek-by-jowl with rich neighborhoods, particularly in the case of Santa Fe.

The south of the city is home to some other high-income neighborhoods such as Colonia del Valle and Jardines del Pedregal, and the formerly separate colonial towns of Coyoacán, San Ángel, and San Jerónimo.

Along Avenida Insurgentes from Paseo de la Reforma, near the center, south past the World Trade Center and UNAM university towards the Periférico ring road, is another important corridor of corporate office space.

The far southern boroughs of Xochimilco and Tláhuac have a significant rural population with Milpa Alta being entirely rural.

East of the center are mostly lower-income areas with some middle-class neighborhoods such as Jardín Balbuena.

Urban sprawl continues further east for many miles into the State of Mexico, including Ciudad Nezahualcoyotl, now increasingly middle-class, but once full of informal settlements. These kind of slums are now found on the eastern edges of the metropolitan area in the Chalco area.

North of the Historic Center, Azcapotzalco and Gustavo A. Madero have important industrial centers and neighborhoods that range from established middle-class colonias such as Claveria and Lindavista to huge low-income housing areas that share hillsides with adjacent municipalities in the State of Mexico.

In recent years much of northern Mexico City’s industry has moved to nearby municipalities in the State of Mexico. Northwest of Mexico City itself is Ciudad Satélite, a vast middle to upper-middle-class residential and business area.

Metropolitan area

Greater Mexico City is formed by the Federal District, 60 municipalities from the State of Mexico and one from the state of Hidalgo.

Greater Mexico City is the largest metropolitan area in Mexico and the area with the highest population density. As of 2009, 21,163,226 people live in this urban agglomeration, of which 8,841,916 live in Mexico City proper.

In terms of population, the biggest municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City (excluding Mexico City proper) are:

• Atizapan de Zaragoza (489,775)
• Chimalhuacán (602,079)
• Cuautitlán Izcalli (532,973)
• Ecatepec de Morelos (1,658,806)
• Ixtapaluca (467,630)
• Naucalpan (833,782)
• Nezahualcóyotl (1,109,363)
• Tlalnepantla de Baz (664,160)

The above municipalities are located in the state of Mexico but are part of the Greater Mexico City area. Approximately 75% (10 million) of the state of México’s population live in municipalities that are part of Greater Mexico City’s conurbation.

Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country until the late 1980s. Since then, and through a policy of decentralization in order to reduce the environmental pollutants of the growing conurbation, the annual rate of growth of the agglomeration has decreased, and it is lower than that of the other four largest metropolitan areas (namely Greater Guadalajara, Greater Monterrey, Greater Puebla and Greater Toluca) even though it is still positive.

The net migration rate of Mexico City proper from 1995 to 2000 was negative, which implies that residents are moving to the suburbs of the metropolitan area, or to other states of Mexico. In addition, some inner suburbs are losing population to outer suburbs, indicating the continuing expansion of Greater Mexico City.

Metro

Mexico City is served by the Sistema de Transporte Colectivo, a 225.9 km (140 mi) metro system, which is the largest in Latin America. The first portions were opened in 1969 and it has expanded to 12 lines with 195 stations. The metro transports 4.4 million people every day. It is the 8th busiest metro system in the world, behind Tokyo (10.0 million), Beijing (9.3 million), Shanghai (7.8 million), Seoul (7.3 million), Moscow (6.7 million), Guangzhou (6.2 million), and New York City (4.9 million).

It is heavily subsidized, and has some of the lowest fares in the world, each trip costing 5.00 pesos (roughly 0.27 USD) from 05:00 am to midnight. Several stations display pre-Columbian artifacts and architecture that were discovered during the metro’s construction. However, the metro covers less than half of the total urban area.

The Metro stations are also differentiated by the use of icons and glyphs which were proposed for people who could not read. The specific icons were developed based on historical (characters, sites, pre-Hispanic motifs), linguistic, symbolic (glyphs) or location references and has been emulated in further transportations alternatives in the City and in other Mexican cities. Mexico City is the only city in the world to use the icon reference and has become a popular culture trademark for the city.

Suburban rail

A suburban rail system, the Tren Suburbano serves the metropolitan area, beyond the city limits of the metro, to municipalities such as Tlalnepantla and Cuautitlán Izcalli, with future extensions to Chalco and La Paz.

Peseros

Peseros are typically half-length passenger buses (known as microbús) that sit 22 passengers and stand up to 28. As of 2007, the approximately 28,000 peseros carried up to 60 percent of the city’s passengers. In August 2016, Mayor Mancera announced that new pesero vehicle and concessions would be eliminated completely unless they were ecologically friendly vehicles, and in October 2011 the city’s Secretary of Mobility Héctor Serrano states that by the end of the current administration (2018) there would no longer by any peseros/microbuses circulating at all, and that new full-sized buses would take over the routes.

Urban buses

City agency Red de Transporte de Pasajeros operates a network of large buses. In 2016, more bus routes were added to replace pesero routes.

In 2016, the SVBUS express bus service was launched, with limited stops and utilizing the city’s toll roads on the second-level of the Periférico ring road and Supervía Poniente and connecting Toreo/Cuatro Caminos with Santa Fe, San Jerónimo Lídice and Tepepan near Xochimilco in the southeast.

Suburban buses also leave from the city’s main intercity bus stations.

Bus rapid transit

The city’s first bus rapid transit line, the Metrobús, began operation in June 2005, along Avenida Insurgentes. Line 2 opened in December 2008, serving Eje 4 Sur, line 3 opened in February 2011, serving Eje 1 Poniente, and line 4 opened in April 2012 connecting the airport with San Lázaro and Buenavista Station at Insurgentes. As the microbuses were removed from its route, it was hoped that the Metrobús could reduce pollution and decrease transit time for passengers. In June 2013, Mexico City’s mayor announced two more lines to come: Line 5 serving Eje 3 Oriente and Line 6 serving Eje 5 Norte. As of June 2013, 367 Metrobús buses transported 850,000 passengers daily.

Mexibús bus rapid transit lines serve suburban areas in the State of Mexico and connect to the Mexico City metro.

Trolleybus, light rail, streetcars

Electric transport other than the metro also exists, in the form of several Mexico City trolleybus routes and the Xochimilco Light Rail line, both of which are operated by Servicio de Transportes Eléctricos. The central area’s last streetcar line (tramway, or tranvía) closed in 1979.

Roads and car transport

In the late 1970s many arterial roads were redesigned as ejes viales; high-volume one-way roads that cross, in theory, Mexico City proper from side to side. The eje vial network is based on a quasi-Cartesian grid, with the ejes themselves being called Eje 1 Poniente, Eje Central, and Eje 1 Oriente, for example, for the north-south roads, and Eje 2 Sur and Eje 3 Norte, for example, for east-west roads. Ring roads are the Circuito Interior (inner ring), Anillo Periférico; the Circuito Exterior Mexiquense (“State of Mexico outer loop”) toll road skirting the northeastern and eastern edges of the metropolitan area, the Chamapa-La Venta toll road skirting the northwestern edge, and the Arco Norte completely bypassing the metropolitan area in an arc from northwest (Atlacomulco) to north (Tula, Hidalgo) to east (Puebla). A second level (where tolls are charged) of the Periférico, colloquially called the segundo piso (“second floor”), was officially opened in 2012, with sections still being completed. The Viaducto Miguel Alemán crosses the city east-west from Observatorio to the airport. In 2013 the Supervía Poniente opened, a toll road linking the new Santa Fe business district with southwestern Mexico City.

There is an environmental program, called Hoy No Circula (“Today Does Not Run”, or “One Day without a Car”), whereby vehicles that have not passed emissions testing are restricted from circulating on certain days according to the ending digit of their license plates; this in an attempt to cut down on pollution and traffic congestion. While in 2003, the program still restricted 40% of vehicles in the metropolitan area, with the adoption of stricter emissions standards in 2001 and 2006, in practice, these days most vehicles are exempt from the circulation restrictions as long as they pass regular emissions tests.

Parking

Street parking in urban neighborhoods is mostly controlled by the franeleros a.k.a. “viene vienes” (lit. “come on, come on”), who ask drivers for a fee to park, in theory to guard the car, but with the implicit threat that the franelero will damage the car if the fee is not paid. Double parking is common (with franeleros moving the cars as required), impeding on the available lanes for traffic to pass. In order to mitigate that and other problems and to raise revenue, 721 parking meters (as of October 2013), have been installed in the west-central neighborhoods Lomas de Chapultepec, Condesa, Roma, Polanco and Anzures, in operation from 8 AM to 8 PM on weekdays and charging a rate of 2 pesos per 15 minutes, with offenders’ cars booted, costing about 500 pesos to remove. 30 percent of the monthly 16 million-peso (as of October 2013) income from the parking-meter system (named “ecoParq”) is earmarked for neighborhood improvements. The granting of the license for all zones exclusively to a new company without experience in operating parking meters, Operadora de Estacionamientos Bicentenario, has generated controversy.

Cycling

The local government continuously strives for a reduction of massive traffic congestion, and has increased incentives for making a bicycle-friendly city. This includes North America’s second-largest bicycle sharing system, EcoBici, launched in 2010, in which registered residents can get bicycles for 45 minutes with a pre-paid subscription of 300 pesos a year. There are, as of September 2013, 276 stations with 4,000 bicycles across an area stretching from the Historic center to Polanco. within 300 metres (980 feet) of one another and are fully automatic using a transponder based card. Bicycle-service users have access to several permanent Ciclovías (dedicated bike paths/lanes/streets), including ones along Paseo de la Reforma and Avenida Chapultepec as well as one running 59 kilometres (37 miles) from Polanco to Fierro del Toro, which is located south of Cumbres del Ajusco National Park, near the Morelos state line. The city’s initiative is inspired by forward thinking examples, such as Denmark’s Copenhagenization.

Intercity buses

The city has four major bus stations (North, South, Observatorio, TAPO), which comprise one of the world’s largest transportation agglomerations, with bus service to many cities across the country and international connections. There are some iintercity buses that leave directly from the Mexico City International Airport.

Airports

Mexico City is served by Mexico City International Airport (IATA Airport Code: MEX). This airport is Latin America’s busiest, with daily flights to United States and Canada, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, South America, Europe and Asia. Aeroméxico (Skyteam) is based at this airport, and provide codeshare agreements with non-Mexican airlines that span the entire globe. The airport is also a hub for Volaris, Interjet and Aeromar.

In 2016, the airport handled almost 42 million passengers, about 3.3 million more than the year before. This traffic exceeds the current capacity of the airport, which has historically centralized the majority of air traffic in the country. An alternate option is Lic. Adolfo López Mateos International Airport (IATA Airport Code: TLC) in nearby Toluca, State of Mexico, although due to several airlines’ decisions to terminate service to TLC, the airport has seen a passenger drop to just over 700,000 passengers in 2014 from over 2.1 million passengers just four years prior.

In the Mexico City airport, the government engaged in an extensive restructuring program that includes the addition of a new second terminal, which began operations in 2007, and the enlargement of four other airports (at the nearby cities of Toluca, Querétaro, Puebla, and Cuernavaca) that, along with Mexico City’s airport, comprise the Grupo Aeroportuario del Valle de México, distributing traffic to different regions in Mexico. The city of Pachuca will also provide additional expansion to central Mexico’s airport network.

During his annual state-of-the-nation address on September 2, 2014, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto unveiled plans for a new international airport to ease the city’s notorious air traffic congestion, tentatively slated for a 2018 opening. The new airport, which would have six runways, will cost $9.15 billion and would be built on vacant federal land east of Mexico City International Airport. Goals are to eventually handle 120 million passengers a year, which would make it the busiest airport in the world.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700