The Olmec civilization is often referred to as the “Mother Culture” of Mesoamerica.

Known for their colossal stone heads, intricate art, and advanced agricultural techniques, the Olmecs laid the foundations for many other Mesoamerican cultures, writing systems, calendar concepts, and religious practices.

• Area of Settlement: Gulf Coast (present-day Veracruz and Tabasco).
• Dates: Approx. 1500 BCE – 400 BCE.

Important Places:

• San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán: Early Olmec ceremonial center.
• La Venta: Known for its colossal heads and ceremonial pyramids.
• Tres Zapotes: Site of the last major Olmec phase.

The Zapotecs were one of the first civilizations in Mesoamerica to develop a system of writing and a calendar. They are also known for their advanced agricultural practices and their influence on neighboring cultures.

The Zapotecs flourished for centuries in the Oaxaca Valley.

• Area of Settlement: Oaxaca Valley.
• Dates: Approx. 700 BCE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Monte Albán: A large ceremonial and political center.
• Mitla: Known for intricate mosaics and religious significance.

The Maya civilization is known for its advanced knowledge of astronomy, mathematics, and architecture. They developed a complex calendar system and one of the earliest forms of writing in the Americas.

Their cities were centers of religion, trade, and governance.

• Area of Settlement: Yucatán Peninsula, Chiapas, Tabasco, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras.
• Dates: Approx. 2000 BCE – 1500 CE.

Important Places:

• Chichén Itzá: A major city with the iconic El Castillo pyramid.
• Uxmal: Known for the Pyramid of the Magician.
• Palenque: Famous for its architecture and inscriptions.
• Tulum: A coastal city with well-preserved walls and temples.
• Calakmul: One of the largest ancient Maya cities.

Teotihuacan was one of the largest cities in the ancient world and a major cultural and economic center. It is known for its massive pyramids, sophisticated urban design, and influence on other Mesoamerican civilizations.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (present-day State of Mexico).
• Dates: Approx. 100 BCE – 750 CE.

Important Places:

• Teotihuacan: The city with the Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and Avenue of the Dead.

The Toltecs were known for their militaristic culture and artistic achievements.

The Toltecs were skilled builders and left behind impressive monuments, such as the Atlantean statues in Tula. The Toltec civilization significantly influenced the Aztecs, who regarded them as cultural predecessors.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (Hidalgo and surrounding areas).
• Dates: Approx. 900 CE – 1150 CE.

Important Places:

• Tula (Tollan): Known for its Atlantean stone statues.

The Mixtecs were known for their craftsmanship, particularly in gold, ceramics, and manuscripts. They also developed intricate political systems and were influential in southern Mexico, especially in Oaxaca.

• Area of Settlement: Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla.
• Dates: Approx. 1000 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Yagul: A Mixtec ceremonial center.
• Tilantongo: An important political and cultural site.

The Tarascans, or Purépecha, were a powerful civilization. Known for their resistance to Aztec expansion, the Tarascans developed unique architectural styles and advanced metalworking techniques, particularly in copper.

• Area of Settlement: Michoacán and surrounding areas.
• Dates: Approx. 1300 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Tzintzuntzan: The Purépecha capital, known for its circular pyramids called Yácatas.

The Aztecs were one of the most powerful civilizations in Mesoamerica. They built an empire, with advanced systems of agriculture, governance, and trade. Known for their religious rituals, they left a lasting legacy in Mexican culture.

• Area of Settlement: Central Mexico (present-day Mexico City and surrounding areas).
• Dates: Approx. 1325 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• Tenochtitlán: Capital city, located on an island in Lake Texcoco.
• Tlatelolco: Known for its large marketplace.
• Cholula: Important religious site with the Great Pyramid of Cholula.

The Huastecs were known for their unique art and music, as well as their distinctive architectural styles. The Huastecs were skilled agriculturists and maintained vibrant trade networks along the Gulf Coast.

• Area of Settlement: Northeastern Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, San Luis Potosí).
• Dates: Approx. 1500 BCE – 1500 CE.

Important Places:

• Tamtoc: A ceremonial and political center.

The Totonacs were known for their agricultural innovations, particularly vanilla cultivation, and their monumental architecture. They were skilled engineers, as evidenced by the impressive structures at El Tajín.

• Area of Settlement: Veracruz and parts of Puebla.
• Dates: Approx. 800 CE – 1521 CE.

Important Places:

• El Tajín: Known for its Pyramid of the Niches.

The Aztec tribes arrived in the Valley of Mexico in the early 14th century.

The Mexicas traveled with other tribes, including the Tlaxcalteca, Tepaneca, and Acolhua, but eventually, their tribal deity Huitzilopochtli told them to split from the other Aztec tribes and take on the name “Mexica”.

The Aztecs, or more accurately the Mexicas, originally Nahua speakers, settled in the Valley of Mexico in the early 14th century. When they arrived in the Valley of Mexico, they were not the only people in the region.

In 1325, the Mexicas founded Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco. According to legend, the choice of this place was guided by the god Huitzilopochtli, who indicated the place where the city should be built.

When the Mexicas arrived, the Valley of Mexico was already inhabited by various other cultures, who spoke different languages. Over time, the Mexicas gradually gained political and cultural influence in the region.

Nahuatl became a dominant language in the region primarily due to the expansion of the Aztec Empire, which involved conquest and the imposition of their culture and language on other indigenous in the valley.

The Mexica were not the only people in the Valley of Mexico. There were other established city-states, such as Tlacopan and Texcoco, and the Mexica had to engage in alliances and conflicts with these neighboring states.

The Aztec Empire, often referred to as the “Aztec Triple Alliance,” was a coalition of 3 major city-states in the Valley of Mexico: Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan (on the left side of the lake), and Texcoco (on the right side of the lake).

The Aztec Empire, also known as the “Aztec Triple Alliance”, was a coalition of 3 major city-states: Tenochtitlan (on an island), Tlacopan (located on the left side of the lake), and Texcoco (on the right side of the lake).

These 3 major and powerful city-states in the Valley of Mexico formed a political and military alliance that laid the foundation for the Aztec Empire, which was sometimes informally referred to as the “Aztec Triple Alliance”.

Tenochtitlan was the most dominant of the 3 allied city-states. Texcoco and Tlacopan were important in this alliance which formed the core of the Aztec Empire. Together, they controlled the Valley of Mexico and beyond.

Tlatelolco, on the other hand, was another city-state located near Tenochtitlan.

Tlatelolco was generally considered a separate entity, closely associated with Tenochtitlan due to its proximity and cultural and economic ties, but it was not one of the 3 principal members of the Aztec Triple Alliance.

The Aztec Empire’s expansion

Through military conquest and diplomacy, this so-called Atec Triple Alliance, gradually expanded their influence and power, subjugating other city-states and forming a loose empire better known as the Aztec Empire.

They also required tribute from neighboring regions.

Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan

Each of these three city-states within the Aztec Triple Alliance had its own rulers or leaders, and they formed a joint leadership as part of the alliance. City-states Texcoco and Tlacopan had their own rulers (tlatoani).

Montezuma II was the emperor of Tenochtitlan, which was the most prominent city-state within the Aztec Triple Alliance. Texcoco and Tlacopan, the other two members of the Triple Alliance, had their own rulers.

Montezuma was the ruler of Tenochtitlan and held a position of great importance, but he was not the sole ruler of all 3 cities. Each city-state maintained some degree of autonomy while cooperating in the alliance.

The Valley of Mexico was home to numerous city-states, each with its own political structure. The Aztec Triple Alliance, comprising Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, was the dominant power among them.

Tlaloc is an important deity in Aztec mythology, and he is often associated with water, fertility, and agriculture. He was revered as the god of rain and storms, playing a vital role in the agricultural cycle of the Aztecs.

Tlaloc was believed to provide the essential rain needed for crops to grow, ensuring the prosperity of the Aztec civilization.

In Aztec thought, Tlaloc was often depicted with several distinctive features:

• Goggle-like eyes
• Fanged teeth
• Blue skin
• Serpent headdress

Tlaloc is commonly portrayed with a headdress adorned with the fangs of a serpent, large, round, goggle-like eyes, sharp, fanged teeth, and blue skin. His association with water is further emphasized by his blue skin.

In some depictions, Tlaloc holds a reed in his hand, a symbol of the fertile earth and the life-giving properties of water.

The Aztecs held elaborate ceremonies and rituals in honor of Tlaloc to ensure a steady supply of rain for their crops. Rituals often included offerings of even human sacrifices to appease the god and secure his blessings.

Huitzilopochtli (or “Huitzilopochtli”) is another important deity in Aztec mythology. Unlike Tlaloc, who was associated with water and agriculture, Huitzilopochtli held a different role and significance in Aztec belief.

Huitzilopochtli is primarily known as the god of war, the sun, and the patron deity of the Aztec people. His name translates to “Hummingbird of the South,” which reflects his connection to the sun and his association with the southern direction.

Here are some key characteristics associated with Huitzilopochtli:

• Warrior god
• Blue or black color
• Headdress and crest
• Shield and Fire serpent
• Sun disk

Huitzilopochtli is often depicted as a fierce and powerful warrior, armed with a serpent-shaped weapon, wearing a headdress and a crest of hummingbird feathers. He is frequently shown holding a shield and a fire serpent.

Huitzilopochtli is sometimes portrayed with a sun disk on his chest.

Huitzilopochtli is typically represented with blue or black color skin, signifying his association with the movement of the Sun across the sky. His black skin color may represent the night and the blue skin color the daytime.

Huitzilopochtli was considered the protector of the Aztecs and Tenochtitlan. The Great Temple in Tenochtitlan was dedicated to him, and many rituals, ceremonies, and human sacrifices, were performed in his honor.

Coatlicue was a significant deity in Aztec mythology. She was primarily venerated as the Earth Mother or Mother of the Gods. She is seen as the source of all life, fertility, and the earth itself. Her role as a creator is central.

Here are some key aspects of Coatlicue and her representations:

• Serpent attributes
• Skull necklace
• Claws and snakes for hands and feet
• Multiple breasts

Coatlicue was often depicted with a skirt made of writhing serpents and a necklace of human skulls and hearts. In some depictions, Coatlicue has claws for hands and feet. Coatlicue is often depicted with multiple breasts.

Coatlicue represents the cyclical nature of life, death, and rebirth. The goddess Coatlicue was also said to have become pregnant by Huitzilopochtli when a ball of feathers fell on her while she was sweeping the temple.

Xipe Totec, also known as “Xipetotec”, is an important deity in Aztec mythology.

The name Xipe Totec translates to “Our Lord the Flayed One” or “The Flayed God,” which hints at one of the most distinctive aspects of this deity. Here are some key characteristics and associations with Xipe Totec:

• Wearing the flayed skin
• Gold paint and red ornaments

Xipe Totec is often depicted wearing the flayed skin of a sacrificial victim. This skin is represented as a symbol of rebirth and regeneration, as it reveals a new layer underneath, much like the shedding of a snake’s skin.

Xipe Totec is frequently depicted with gold-colored body paint or a golden mask, symbolizing his connection to precious metals and wealth. He may also be adorned with red ornaments and feathers.

In some interpretations, Xipe Totec is associated with maize (corn) and the agricultural cycle. This association reinforces his role in ensuring the renewal of life and the fertility of the land.

Xipe Totec was closely linked to the spring equinox, and a festival known as Tlacaxipehualiztli was held in his honor. During this festival, priests would conduct rituals that involved the flaying of sacrificial victims to symbolize the renewal of life and crops.

Xipe Totec’s role in Aztec belief highlights the importance of sacrifice and regeneration in their religious worldview. He was seen as a deity who could bring about the rebirth of the earth and its fertility through ritual sacrifice.

This combination of death and rebirth in the context of agriculture was a central theme in Aztec spirituality and cosmology.

Xipe Totec’s worship played a significant role in the spiritual and agricultural life of the Aztec civilization, emphasizing the cyclical nature of existence and the interdependence of human and natural forces.

Quetzalcoatl, one of the most well-known deities in Aztec mythology, is often referred to as the “Feathered Serpent.” This god holds a central place in the religious beliefs and cosmology of various Mesoamerican cultures, not just the Aztecs.

Quetzalcoatl’s name combines “quetzal” (bird) and “coatl” (serpent). He was depicted as a feathered serpent, with plumes and scales adorning his body. This dual nature symbolizes his connection to both the earth and the sky.

Quetzalcoatl is often revered as a creator god and is associated with the creation of humanity. Quetzalcoatl is considered the god of the wind, as well as a patron of knowledge, art, and writing.

In some depictions, Quetzalcoatl was portrayed as a white, bearded figure.

This aspect is particularly notable as it is said to have contributed to the belief that Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés was the return of Quetzalcoatl, which played a role in the Aztec’s initial acceptance of the Spanish.

Quetzalcoatl’s duality as a feathered serpent embodies the balance between the earthly and the celestial. He represents the harmonious relationship between opposites, such as creation and destruction, light and dark.

Quetzalcoatl’s worship was associated with spring and renewal, signifying the cyclical aspect of life and nature. His festivals often involved rituals and celebrations to promote fertility and growth.

Quetzalcoatl was a highly revered and widely worshipped god across Mesoamerica. His mythology and symbolism highlight the deep connection between nature, spirituality, and cultural development in the Mesoamerican world.

Legends say, that in 1325 on a small island in Lake Texcoco, Aztecs saw an ancient prophecy, the god Huitzilopochtli had predicted them to settle where they saw an eagle holding a snake in its claws, and sitting on a cactus.

In the same year, Tenochtitlan was founded. The capital of the future Aztec Empire was later divided into 4 districts: Teopan, Moyotlán, Quepopan, and Aztacalco, with a ceremonial center located in the center of the city.

Aztecs were in the service (mainly as military mercenaries) of the most powerful city-state of that period in the Valley of Mexico – Azcapotzalco. As a reward for their service, they received land and access to natural resources.

During this period, they with great zeal rebuilt their city, expanding it with the help of artificial islands – chinampas and tried to enter into alliances (often through marriage) with the ruling dynasties of neighboring peoples, which trace their origins to the Toltecs.

• In 1337 a group of Aztecs split from the main tribe and founded the city of Tlatelolco.
• In 1348 the war with the Tepans began.
• In 135, Cholula was conquered by the Kingdom of Huexotzingo.
• In 1375 the Azcapotzalco ruler authorized the Aztecs to formally elect their ruler.

Between 1375 and 1376 the Aztecs elected their first paramount leader, Acamapichtli.

Ācamāpīchtli is considered the first “huey tlatoani” (governor) of the Mexicas, who strengthened the alliance between Tenochtitlán and the capital of the Tepanecs, Azcapotzalco, helping them in their conquests, especially to the south.

The Great Temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli probably was built in 1390.

In 1395, Acamapichtli died (after his death a period of unrest began), and Huitzilihuitl (1395-1405/14) became his successor. Huitzilíhuitl was the second Mexica “huey tlatoani” (governor), who ruled from 1391 to 1415.

Huitzilíhuitl was also the 4th son of Acamapichtli, his predecessor on the Mexica throne, and was chosen according to the chronicles because he was a young man with a noble heart, gentle and good habits.

Once he became the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan, his first political decision was of utmost importance – he married the daughter of the tlatoani of Azcapotzalco, with which he achieved that the tributes were reduced to mere symbolic deliveries.

In return, Huitzilíhuitl provided his father-in-law with a great service – the Aztecs conquered several neighboring towns, such as Chalco and Cuautitlán, in the name of the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, of whom, despite the joy caused by the royal wedding, they remained vassals.

Hutizilíhuitl died at 35 years of age.

When he died he left his kingdom in order and dictated several laws, forming an army for the land and another for the water. Huitzilíhuitl was the first tlatoani-warrior, he introduced Aztecs to a taste for war, military life, and conquests.

In 1405/14 (one was given in 1405, the other in 1414), the third Aztec emperor was Chimalpopoca (1405/14-1428), brother of Huitzilihuitl. He established a complex system of dynastic succession.

The tlatoani (supreme ruler) was elected by four military leaders appointed by the Supreme Council. They could choose tlatoani from among the brothers of the deceased tlatoani, and if not, then from among the sons and nephews in the male line.

By 1418, the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco had conquered the entire territory of Texcoco.

In 1428 Itzcoatl came to power. Emperor Itzcoatl and his nephew (or brother) Tlacaelel (adviser to the emperor) were the first to officially sanction the practice of sacrifice.

Identifying the main Aztec god Huitzilopochtli with the Sun, they had to periodically feed the celestial body with fresh human blood so that it would not stop its path of movement across the sky.

That same year, Azcapotzalco marched against Tenochtitlan, but the Aztecs formed an alliance with Tlatelolco, Tlacopan, Texcoco, Tlaxcala, Huexotzingo, and eventually defeated the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco in 1430.

Azcapotzalco Tepanecs was defeated in 1430.

Itzcoatl forms a powerful triple alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan (Mexica, Acolhua, and Tepanecs) with the supreme council, in which foreign policy issues solved by Aztecs, trade issues – by Tepanecs and law issues – by Acolhua.

War Spoils in such an alliance were divided in the ratio 2:2:1. A Tlacaelel began to lead an army of the Triple Alliance because he manifested himself at war with Tepanecs as an outstanding commander.

Itzcoatl captured the agricultural south and north of the Valley of Mexico. The Council of Elders, warlords, and priests have been replaced by the Council of Four, the highest advisory body to the tlatoani, consisting of his relatives, and had the right to choose a new tlatoani.

Itzcoatl also destroyed the old pictographic manuscripts, in which the Aztecs and their deities assigned a modest role in the history of the Valley of Mexico. Instead, they wrote new manuscripts, which magnified the Aztecs and kept silent about a primitive tribal past.

In 1440, Montezuma I came to power (1440-1469).

During his rule sacrifices in the form of fights between captive enemies became popular. If during such bouts captives showed courage and provided stubborn resistance, priests awarded valuable gifts to one who captivated them.

Montezuma I often invited to such fights leaders of the not yet conquered city-states.

Between Triple Alliance and other city-states – Tlaxcala, Huexotzingo, Cholula – by mutual agreement, there was the “war of flowers”, the main purpose was to get prisoners to offer a sacrifice to the Sun.

Aztec Empire acquired new lands and needed administrative reforms. There was introduced special order management, and new rules to promote the social ladder. Montezuma I laid the foundations of the judicial system distinct from community and clan law.

Tlatoani still retain their deified status, and the ongoing process of concentration in the hands of the ruler of the military, political, religious, ideological, legislative, and judicial branches.

In the mid-15th century, the Aztecs continued to equip their capital and built a huge dam across the lake, which could supply the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan with freshwater and protect the city from flooding. Aztecs built the first aqueduct in the city.

• In 1445 the Aztecs organized a military campaign in Oaxaca.
• In 1446, they waged military action against the Chalco-Amecameca Confederacy.

From 1450 to 1454 AD Aztecs were a subject of natural disaster: there were prolonged droughts and untimely frosts. The result of it was famine and disease – many people died. There have been numerous cases of cannibalism.

• 1458 – conquest of Veracruz and Coixtlahuaca.
• In 1465 the Aztecs defeated the Chalco and conquered them.

In 1469, came to power Axayacatl and in 1473 he conquered Tlatelolco.

• In the 1470-1480-ies Aztecs extended the western boundaries of the empire.
• In 1476 they conquered the Valley of Toluca.

In 1481, Tizoc Calchihutlatonac, grandson of Montezuma I, became the Aztec emperor. During his reign empire experienced its heyday. After 2 years after the beginning of his reign, he decided to rebuild the pyramid, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli.

He decided to make the Temple significantly higher, grander, and more powerful – it took a lot of human resources: not only the adult population of the city and the slaves who worked under the construction of the temple, but also children.

In 1486 Tizoc was poisoned (this is an assumption) and the Emperor became the third grandson of Montezuma I – Ahuitzotl (1486-1502). He had become famous as an outstanding military leader.

The next year (Feb. 19, 1487) was completed the construction of the Great Temple. In honor of the temple, Aztecs invited tribal leaders who belonged to the empire, which brought a lot of subjects to sacrifice.

There have also been festively decorated all the temples in Tenochtitlan at that time (about 300). The first one who tore the victim’s heart and handed it to the priest was the emperor himself.

At the same moment, all the temples in the city started a mass sacrifice, which lasted from morning until late evening. The feast lasted 3 days. According to various estimates, there were from 4000 to 80,600 sacrificed men.

But it seems a more accurate figure of 20,000 prisoners.

During his reign, Ahuitzotl was forced to do the construction of irrigation and drainage facilities, due to the periodic lack of food and freshwater in growing Tenochtitlan. Thus, the second aqueduct was built in the city.

In 1496, the boundaries of the Aztec Empire were located near the border Mixtec state (Valley of Oaxaca). Ahuitzotl could not ignore the territory of the Mixtec State and he began a military expansion of the Aztecs, which turned into a protracted.

A solar eclipse occurred which scared all the inhabitants of the empire.

By the early 16th century, all city-states conquered by the Triple Alliance were deeply integrated into the imperial structure and their rulers participated in the wars of conquest organized by the Aztecs and received rewards in the form of titles and lands.

The Triple Alliance included about 50 city-states and was subordinate to more than 400 villages. There were 38 provinces from which the Aztecs collected tribute.

In 1502, came to power Montezuma Xocoyotzin (Montezuma II), son of Axayacatl. During his reign, the empire was mainly been engaged not only in capturing new lands but the consolidation of previously captured and the suppression of uprisings and revolts.

Montezuma II was unable as his predecessor to win the west Tarascan, and the east Tlaxcaltecs (the latter provided military assistance to the Spanish conquistadors, and united with them against Aztecs).

Montezuma II left a memory of himself as a consummate diplomat. He continued the policy of military expansion, but his policies differed from the policies of his predecessors. In place of a lightning attack came the successive events on the active inclusion of different peoples in the economic life of the country.

During his reign the state included numerous enclaves, as a result – the Triple Alliance territory covered all of central Mexico, including Veracruz, Hidalgo, Puebla, Mexico, Morelos, and partially Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas.

In Tenochtitlan was built a special temple, where were the statues of the gods of the conquered tribes. During this period, continued the practice of mass sacrifice – it is known to us that once Montezuma II ordered in one day to sacrifice more than 1000 prisoners.

In 1503, the Aztecs began a new protracted and bloody war against Oaxaca. Montezuma II attacks Mixtec cities Achiotlan and Xaltepec. This year heavy rains flood the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.

In 1504 the Aztecs carried out military action against the enclave of Puebla. From 1505 to 1509 Aztecs began a military campaign against the cities Quetzaltepec, Tototepec, Teuctepec, Miauatlan, Yanuetlan, and Zozallan.

• In 1509, the Aztecs in horror were watching the comet.
• In the years 1511-1512 Aztecs were defeated in the war against Oaxaca.
• In 1514 there were natural disasters that caused the harvest and after it began to hunger.
• In 1515 starts the rebel of Ixtlilxochitl. The war began Texcoco vs Tlaxcala.

Arose rumors about the appearance of the bearded white men. In 1518, Juan de Grijalva on four well-equipped ships, made an expedition to the Yucatan Peninsula, and then, on his return to Cuba, he sailed along the coast of the Aztec Empire.

1519 – Aztecs conquered the capital of the Totonac – Zempoala.

By this period the empire has already a huge territory with a variety of rich natural resources from the northern regions of Mexico to the current boundaries of Guatemala: arid areas north of the Valley of Mexico, mountain gorges of the current state of Oaxaca, and Guerrero, coastal Gulf of Mexico, Pacific ridges.

By this time Tenochtitlan had become one of the largest cities in the world with a population of 150-200 thousand people and had become a huge trading center with a large market in the satellite city of Tlatelolco, where in the trading day attended up to 25 thousand people.

• The second-largest city of the empire was Texcoco with a population of 30,000 people.
• In many other cities, the population was 10-25 thousand people.

In 1519 began the expedition of Hernando Cortez.

He sailed from Cuba on February 18 with 11 ships onboard which were 508 soldiers, 16 horses, and a few guns. First, he sailed with 10 ships to Cozumel. He then rounded the Yucatan and sailed to the Mexican coast, where he founded the city of Veracruz.

After the arrival of the Spaniards, the Aztec emperor brought the report: “The gods have returned. Their spears spewing flames. Their warriors have two heads and six legs, and they live in floating homes.”

Montezuma expected the performance of the ancient prophecy of the return of Quetzalcoatl in the year Ce Acatl (year of cane rod), which corresponded to 1519. During the ten years before this event in the Aztec empire were 8 omens of an impending disaster:

Every night during the year the flames appeared in the eastern sky. For unexplained reasons, was burned the temple of Huitzilopochtli in Tlacateccan. Lightning struck a temple of Xiutecuhtli in Tzonmolco.

One afternoon there was a comet, that collapsed into 3 parts. The water in Lake Texcoco boiled up and destroyed the surrounding houses. One night the voice of a weeping woman heard: “My dear children, we must go! Where can I take you?”.

One fisherman caught heron, tufted in the form of a mirror in which Montezuma saw the heavens and the army, riding on animals like deer. There were found people with two heads and one torso, which then mysteriously disappeared.

During his stay on the Gulf Coast, Cortez repeatedly clashed with local tribes, but the force of arms of the Indians was not comparable to European – powder did the trick.

Meanwhile, Montezuma received the reports, which said that white people shooting lightning and dressed in armor made of silver and stone, and could not be defeated in open battle. To somehow appease the “gods” Montezuma sends Cortez different gifts.

But the Spaniards were not ready yet to go to Tenochtitlan.

Constant skirmishes took their toll – the bread, bacon, and salt were in the end, the soldiers were tired of wearing heavy armor, and many were afraid of freezing in the mountains, as well as they were afraid of a huge Aztec army.

However, Cortes was not going to come back with empty hands, and the desire for easy and quick gains, as well as the speaking skills of the leader of the Spaniards, convinced all to take a march on Tenochtitlan.

August 16, 1519, the Spaniards began their march on the capital of the Aztec empire, which lies about 450 kilometers to the west. Along the way, they were joined by several thousand Indians.

November 8, 1519, the Spaniards came to Tenochtitlan, and Moctezuma greeted them: “Welcome, we’ve been waiting for you. This is your house.” He waited for God, Quetzalcoatl. But they were not gods …

In the ensuing weeks, the Aztec emperor discovered that he had become a hostage, and the Spaniards began to destroy all relics of Indians and put them in place of the Christian shrines.

Then the Indians were more and more convinced that posing as gods Spaniards were no less bloodthirsty and greedy for gold trafficking. There was growing dissatisfaction with the actions of Montezuma who continued to support the white newcomers.

One day he was taken to the roof to calm down the raging crowd, but some threw stones from the wounds of which he died three days later (according to the Spaniards, but there are other versions which say that the Spaniards themselves killed the emperor before they escaped from the city).

After Montezuma, the Emperor became for a short time his brother Cuitlauak (1520-1520). Soon after the onslaught of a huge number of Aztecs, Cortez with his army was forced to leave the city.

That same year Cuauhtémoc of Tlatelolco (“descending (falling) Eagle” – 1520-1521) became the last sovereign ruler of the Aztec Empire. In that year he turned 18 years old.

Escaped from the town Cortes had no intention of giving up. Building ships and trusting luck, allies, gunpowder, horses, and iron, led this united army to attack Tenochtitlan.

August 13, 1521, the Spaniards captured Tenochtitlan, together with the latest tlatoani Cuauhtemoc and several of his supreme advisors. Tenochtitlan was completely looted and destroyed, and Cuauhtémoc was executed.

The Aztec Empire was completely conquered by the Spaniards.

During the Aztec era, Mexico witnessed rain festivals in honor of Tlaloc, the god of rain and lightning. These festivals were deeply rooted in Aztec culture, reflecting the importance of agriculture and nature to their society.

Rain Festivals were held 3 times a year.

The 1st Rain Festival was held at the beginning of the agricultural year, in February. During this event, priests performed rituals to invoke Tlaloc’s blessing and bring about rain, which is crucial for a successful planting season.

In March, when the flowers began to bloom, the ancient Aztecs held a 2nd Rain Festival. This event celebrated the renewal of life and growth, with offerings to Tlaloc and other rain deities to ensure a bountiful harvest.

In autumn, the 3rd Rain Festival was intended to bring rainfall in the coming season. During this festival, intricate mountain-like shapes and images of Tlaloc were created to symbolize his abode on the mountain peaks.

Rain Festivals reflect the Aztecs’ deep reverence for nature and their dependence on divine powers for agricultural prosperity, highlighting the enduring importance of ancient traditions in Mexican pre-Hispanic cultures.

Every August, Mexico City hosts the Homage to Cuauhtémoc festival.

This is a colorful tribute to Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec emperor, killed in 1525. This celebration takes place at the Cuauhtémoc statue on the Paseo de la Reforma, combining history, culture, and dance in a spectacular show.

Cuauhtémoc’s story unfolds through narratives and Conchero dance performances.

Dancers are adorned with magnificent feathered headdresses, decorated with mirrors and beads. It is a traditional indigenous dance of central Mexico, known for rhythmic movements, symbolic rituals, and elaborate costumes.

Conchero dancers combine Aztec and Spanish influences, carrying images of Jesus Christ and other Catholic saints, a symbolic fusion of different cultures reflecting Mexico’s complex heritage.

Each dancer moves to its own rhythm and music. The dance gradually builds momentum, reaching a moving climax, and then fades into a moment of poignant silence, paying tribute to Cuauhtémoc and the resilience of Aztecs.

In pre-Hispanic Mexico, the New Fire Ceremony festival was held every 52 years.

The Aztecs had 2 different calendar cycles: a solar calendar with 18 months of 20 days each plus an “unlucky” period of 5 days, and a ritual calendar spanning 260 days, divided into 13 months of 20 named days each.

When these cycles intersected, they formed a grand “century” lasting 52 years.

As this age came to an end, the Aztecs held their breath in anticipation of a cosmic renewal. The New Fire Ceremony Festival marked this auspicious turning point, symbolizing the transition to a new era, and spiritual rebirth.

The old altar fire was extinguished and a new one was lit, as a symbol of a new era.

On the appointed day, all fires in the Valley of Mexico were extinguished before dusk – a symbolic act of closure. The population then gathered, following their revered priests to the sacred temple atop the Hill of the Star.

There they waited for a heavenly omen. The appearance of the Pleiades constellation at its zenith was crucial, its timely alignment meant the continuation of the life cycle. This heaven sign meant that peace would continue.

Having received this confirmation, the torchbearers set out on a torch relay through the valley, re-lighting the fire in each house. This act is a testament to the enduring spirit of Aztecs amid the cosmic dance of the heavens.

The celebration of the Quecholli Festival pays homage to Mixcoatl, also known as the Cloud Serpent, the deity of the hunt, and the Morning Star, celebrated on the 280th day of the Aztec year, at the end of the 14th month.

Mixcoatl had features reminiscent of a deer or rabbit. This deity played a pivotal role in Aztec cosmology as one of the four creators of the world. Mixcoatl sparked fire from sticks, a pivotal act enabling the creation of humanity.

The Quecholli Festival coincides with the day traditionally designated for the crafting of weapons. This event is marked by ceremonial hunting, symbolizing the eternal cycle of life and the livelihood derived from hunting.

During Quecholli, the Aztecs engage in rituals and festivities that honor Mixcoatl, underscoring the deep spiritual connection with the natural world, and perpetuating the legacy of Mixcoatl as a guardian and provider for Aztecs.

Xipe Totec festival is an intriguing aspect of Aztec culture and religious practice.

Xipe Totec, revered by the Aztecs as the god of war was often called “Our Lord the Flayed One”. This epithet is associated with the deity’s characteristic iconography, which depicts Xipe Totec dressed in human skin.

This event took place in March and was dedicated to Xipe Totec.

During this festival, Aztec warriors participated in rituals, captured prisoners of war, performed sacrificial rituals, tore out their hearts, and then proceeded to skin them and wear their skin throughout the 20-day festival.

The festivities included mock battles fought by these skin-clad warriors. After the ceremonies were completed, the rotting skins of the sacrificial victims were respectfully thrown into caves or buried in the ground.

The Xipe Totec Festival provides a look into the complexities of Aztec religious beliefs and rituals, highlighting the unique ways that ancient cultures sought to understand and interact with their gods and the natural world.

Xilonen, also known as Chicomecoatl, was a goddess of fertility and sustenance. She was honored through rituals and offerings. The Xilonen Festival is a colorful celebration, event that lasts 8 days, starting on June 22.

Each evening during the celebration of this festive, unmarried girls carried young green corn as offerings in a ceremonial procession to the temple. This act was a sacred show of gratitude and a prayer for a bountiful harvest.

The highlight of the festival was the choice of a slave girl who would embody Xilonen.

Decorated and stylized as a goddess Xilonen, she participated in ceremonial rites throughout the festival. On the final night, the chosen girl was sacrificed and her life was offered as a profound gesture of devotion to Xylonen.

The Xilonen Festival is an ancient tradition and cultural richness of the Aztec heritage.

There are many more Aztec festivals celebrated in Mexico.

Ochpaniztli was a festival dedicated to the maize goddess, Chicomecoatl, celebrated in the Aztec month of Ochpaniztli (late August to early September). It involved rituals to ensure fertility and abundance for the maize harvest.

Panquetzaliztli was held during the Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli (late November to early December). This event was held in honor of Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, and included processions, dances, and offerings.

Toxcatl was a major festival dedicated to Tezcatlipoca, the god of providence and rulership. This event featured music, dance, and the sacrifice of a young man who impersonated the god for a year before his sacrificial death.

Tlaxochimaco was celebrated in the Aztec month of Toxcatl (late May to early June) and was dedicated to Xochipilli, the god of flowers, art, and games. This festival involved dances, songs, and offerings of flowers to honor Xochipilli.

Huey Tecuilhuitl was also known as the “Great Festival of the Lords”. This festival was celebrated in honor of various Aztec gods and goddesses. It included multiple days of ceremonies, feasting, and ritual performances.

These festivals played important roles in Aztec religious and social life, reflecting the complex cosmology and cultural practices. Each festival had specific rituals, ceremonies, and symbolic meanings tied to the Aztec beliefs.

Tenoch (or Tenuch) was a ruler of the Mexicas (Aztecs) during the 14th century during the Aztec travels from Aztlán to Tenochtitlan.

He was a respected chief who was elected to power by the Council of Elders and died in 1375. There is disagreement about whether Tenoch is a mythological person or a real Mexica leader who was later mythologized.

Tenoch was one of nine Mexica leaders who were told how Mexica could gain support from the forces of nature.

After traveling southward for 200 years, the Mexica found the sign. In honor of their leader, they named the small, reedy island in Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan soon became the capital of the Aztec Empire.

The Nahuatl symbols of his name are found in the Mexican flag: Tetl, the rock, and Nochtli, the prickly pear cactus.

Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl (“rock”) and nōchtli (“prickly pear”) and is often thought to mean, “Among the prickly pears (growing among) rocks”.

However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as “the Bancroft dialogues” suggests the second vowel was short so the true etymology remains uncertain.

Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2 (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco.

At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli.

The city was connected to the mainland by causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely.

The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.

Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the “levee of Nezahualcoyotl” was constructed, and reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl.

Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.

Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing.

For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day.

Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria americana), and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl (Agave americana).

Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote in his “The Conquest of New Spain”:

When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (…) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry.

And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream. (…) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.

The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, in Nahuatl named calpōlli); and each calpulli, or ‘big house’, was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli.

Three main streets crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses.

Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.

Marketplaces

Each calpulli (“large house”) had its marketplace, but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco – Tenochtitlan’s sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily.

Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.

Public buildings

In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces.

Inside a walled square, 500 meters to the side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc.

Other public buildings were the temple of Quetzalcoatl, the ball game court with the rack of skulls, the Sun Temple, the Eagle’s House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers, the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice, and some minor temples.

Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.

The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning.

Palaces of Moctezuma II

The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.

There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.

Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica regarding social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes. The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan.

The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders and lived in the confines of the island. Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess and were treated as nobles.

Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king.

Tlacohtin were individuals who chose to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide.

Finally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading.

The membership of this class was based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.

Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs.

The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.

Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpolli (big house), a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.

Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle eating a snake perched atop a cactus.

The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico’s coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavorable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as “floating gardens”) for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.

A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, and perhaps even the Inca Empire.

After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.

Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000, many scholars believe Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities in the world at that time.

Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice, and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII. In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba.

Cortes’ men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.

Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000, the most common estimates of the population are over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic survey sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 sq km.

It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had ruled over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.

When Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large empire, chose to welcome Cortés as an honored guest, rather than risk a war that might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people.

Moctezuma may have feared that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoatl because the Spanish arrival coincided with the close of an Aztec calendar cycle consistent with such a return. This claim is found in the Florentine Codex, however, some scholars doubt it.

As Cortés approached the great city of Tenochtitlan, the natives put on many events. Nobles lined each side along the buildings of the city’s main causeway, which extended about a league.

Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, who had two lords at his side, one being his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Cortés dismounted, and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but was forbidden to touch him.

Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.

They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés.

The ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have.

He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he so desired it.

Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Cortés faced early trouble. Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards.

He requested that officers be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.

When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and so led troops to storm Almería.

Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who commanded the officers to be executed.

Back in Tenochtitlan, Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him endlessly. Though no serious conclusions were made, this started the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.

The Siege of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, was a decisive event in the Spanish conquest of Mexico. It occurred in 1521 following extensive manipulation of local factions and exploitation of preexisting divisions by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, who was aided by the support of his indigenous allies and his interpreter and companion Malinche.

Although numerous battles were fought between the Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led coalition, which was itself composed primarily of indigenous (mostly Tlaxcaltec) personnel, it was the siege of Tenochtitlan—its outcome probably largely determined by the effects of a smallpox epidemic (which devastated the Aztec population and dealt a severe blow to the Aztec leadership while leaving an immune Spanish leadership intact)—that directly led to the downfall of the Aztec civilization and marked the end of the first phase of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

The conquest of Mexico was a critical stage in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Ultimately, Spain conquered Mexico and thereby gained substantial access to the Pacific Ocean, which meant that the Spanish Empire could finally achieve its original oceanic goal of reaching the Asian markets.

The road to Tenochtitlan

In April 1519 Hernán Cortés, the Chief Magistrate of Santiago, Cuba, came upon the coast of Mexico at a point he called Vera Cruz with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14 small cannons. Governor Velázquez, the highest Spanish authority in the Americas, called for Cortés to lead an expedition into Mexico after reports from a few previous expeditions to Yucatán caught the interest of the Spanish in Cuba. Velázquez revoked Cortés’ right to lead the expedition once he realized that Cortés intended to exceed his mandate and invade the mainland. After Cortés sailed, Velázquez sent an army led by Pánfilo de Narváez to take him into custody.

But Cortés used the same legal tactic used by Governor Velázquez when he invaded Cuba years before: he created a local government and had himself elected as the magistrate, thus (in theory) making him responsible only to the King of Spain. Cortés followed this tactic when he and his men established the city of Veracruz. An inquiry into Cortés’ action was conducted in Spain in 1529 and no action was taken against him.

As he moved inland Cortés came into contact with several polities who resented Aztec rule; Cortés clashed with some of these polities, among them the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans. The latter surrounded his army on a hilltop for two agonizing weeks. Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote that his numerically inferior force probably would not have survived if it were not for Xicotencatl the Elder and his wish to ally with the Spaniards against the Aztecs.

It once was widely believed that the Aztecs first thought Cortés was Quetzalcoatl, a mythical god prophesied to return to Mexico—coincidentally in the same year Cortés landed and from the same direction he came. This is now believed to be an invention of the conquerors, and perhaps natives who wished to rationalize the actions of the Aztec tlatoani, Moctezuma II. Most scholars agree that the Aztecs, especially the inner circle around Moctezuma, were well convinced that Cortés was not a god in any shape or form.

Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other emissaries to meet Cortés at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries brought golden jewelry as a gift, which greatly pleased the Spaniards. According to the Florentine Codex, Lib. 12, f.6r., Moctezuma also ordered that his messengers carry the highly symbolic penacho (headdress) of Quetzalcoatl de Tula to Cortés and place it on his person. As news about the strangers reached the capital city, Moctezuma became increasingly fearful and considered fleeing the city but resigned himself to what he considered to be the fate of his people.

Cortés continued on his march towards Tenochtitlan. Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his troops prepared themselves for battle, armoring themselves and their horses, and arranging themselves in proper military rank. Four horsemen were at the lead of the procession. Behind these horsemen were five more contingents: foot soldiers with iron swords and wooden or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebuses; lastly, native peoples from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhquitepec, and Huexotzinco. The indigenous soldiers wore cotton armor and were armed with shields and crossbows; many carried provisions in baskets or bundles while others escorted the cannons on wooden carts.

Cortés’ army entered the city on the flower-covered causeway (Iztapalapa) associated with the god Quetzalcoatl. Cortés was amicably received by Moctezuma. The captive woman Malinalli Tenépal, also known as La Malinche or Doña Marina, translated from Nahuatl to Chontal Maya; the Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar translated from Chontal Maya to Spanish.

Moctezuma was soon taken hostage on November 14, 1519, as a safety measure by the vastly outnumbered Spanish. According to all eyewitness accounts, Moctezuma initially refused to leave his palace but after a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish captains, and assurances from La Malinche, he agreed to move to the Axayáctal palace with his retinue. The first captain assigned to guard him was Pedro de Alvarado. Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish. The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers to prevent any rescue attempt.

Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spaniards

It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated so readily with the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power. It was clear from the beginning that he was ambivalent about who Cortés and his men were: gods, descendants of a god, ambassadors from a greater king, or just barbaric invaders. From the perspective of the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on the Spaniards or to wait for the end of the agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not carry out either of these actions even though high-ranking military leaders such as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to do so.

With Moctezuma’s captive, Cortés did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked, although some of his captains had such concerns. He also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not as powerful as Cortés imagined. Being appointed to and maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the ability to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders issued by Cortés, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to the Spaniards, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him.

Cortés and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 800 soldiers, twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Velázquez felt that Cortés had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortés’s misconduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable winds, though and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narváez’s troops landed at San Juan de Ulúa on the Mexican coast around April 20, 1520.

After Cortés became aware of their arrival, he brought a small force of about two hundred and forty to Narváez’s camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Cortés attacked Narváez’s camp late at night. His men wounded Narváez and took him as a hostage quickly. Evidence suggests that the two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narváez was not expecting an attack. Cortés had also won over Narváez’s captains with promises of vast wealth in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortés’s forces.

Massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl

During Cortés’s absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in command in Tenochtitlan with 120 soldiers.

At this time, the Aztecs began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca, otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipotent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the dry season so that the god would fill dry streambeds and cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the consent of Cortés to hold the festival and again confirmed permission with Alvarado.

Alvarado agreed to allow the festival on the condition that there would be no human sacrifice but the Toxcatl festival had featured human sacrifice as the main part of its climactic rituals. The sacrifice involved the killing of a young man who had been impersonating the god Toxcatl deity for a full year. Thus, prohibiting human sacrifice during this festival was an untenable proposition for the Aztecs.

Before the festival, Alvarado encountered a group of women building a statue of Huitzilopochtli, and the image unsettled him, and he became suspicious about the eventuality of human sacrifice. He tortured priests and nobles and discovered that the Aztecs were planning a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he sequestered Moctezuma and increased the guards around the tlatoani.

By the day of the festival, the Aztecs had gathered on the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The euphoric dancing as well as the accompanying flute and drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors, and priests.

Alvarado, the conquistadors, and the Tlaxcalans retreated to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their cannons, crossbows, and arquebuses into the gathering crowd. The Aztec revolt became more widespread as a result. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them.

The massacre was the result of resolutely turning all the Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining Moctezuma’s authority.

Aztec revolt

When it became more clear what was happening to the Aztecs outside the Temple, the alarm was sounded. Aztec warriors came running, fired darts, and launched spears at the Spanish forces. This may have been because their military infrastructure was severely damaged after the attack on the festival, as the most elite seasoned warriors were killed.

Alvarado sent for word to Cortés of the events, and Cortés hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers. Cortés also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the journey. Cortés entered the palace unscathed, although the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent people were slaughtered because they were suspected of helping them. The roads were shut and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier who was not killed was wounded.

Cortés failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. Thus, the military gains of the attack also had a serious political cost for Cortés.

Cortés attempted to parley with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However, the Aztecs refused. The Spanish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his people as he attempted to speak with them. The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma had been murdered by the Spanish. Two other local rulers were found strangled as well. Moctezuma’s younger brother Cuitláhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then, was chosen as the Tlatoani.

La Noche Triste and the Spanish flight to Tlaxcala

This Aztec victory is still remembered as “La Noche Triste,” The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say that Cortés wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his troops at the hands of the Aztecs.

Though a flight from the city would make Cortés appear weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortés and his men were in the center of the city, and would most likely have to fight their way out no matter what direction they took. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, so a path directly east would have been most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortés’s people and supplies, which he was unable to procure in his position.

Thus, Cortés had to choose among three land routes: north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Ixtlapalapan, two towns that would not welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortés decided on the west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people.

Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish. On that “Sad Night,” July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace first with their indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses’ hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals. The Spanish forces were able to pass through the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco.

However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish off. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and arquebuses, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty.

When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous “leap of Alvarado” using a spear to get to the other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards succeeding in reaching the mainland, while the remaining ones died in battle or were captured and later sacrificed on Aztec altars. After crossing over the bridge, the surviving Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spanish had been killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows were lost. The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals.

To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the entire trip, because Cortés took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortés’s forces were not very heavy. As Cortés arrived in more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were more forceful.

Battle of Otumba

Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs had underestimated the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because all they had seen was the horses traveling on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains.

Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat when he spotted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful feather costume, and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander. The Spanish suffered heavy losses, but were eventually victorious over the Aztecs, who then retreated.

When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narváez’s troops. Cortés claimed only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1150 Spaniards dead, though this figure was most likely more than the total number of Spanish. Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés’ chaplain, estimated 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded.

The women survivors included Cortés’s translator and lover La Malinche, María Estrada, and two of Moctezuma’s daughters who had been given to Cortés, including the emperor’s favorite and reportedly most beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doña Isabel Moctezuma). A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second “María” named in his will.

Shifting alliances

Cuitláhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately following Moctezuma’s death. It was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitláhuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for many tributaries. The Aztec empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based either on their own interests or fear of punishment.

It was necessary for Cortés to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards at this point or turned them over to the Aztecs. In fact, the Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if they would do just that. The Tlaxcalan leaders rebuffed the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to continue their friendship with Cortés.

Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortés for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands. The Spanish did complain about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities would later disown this treaty with the Tlaxcalans after the fall of Tenochtitlan.

Cortés needed to gain other new allies as well. If the Spaniards were able to prove they could protect their new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, changing sides would not be too difficult for other tributaries. After Cortés’s forces managed to defeat the smaller armies of some Aztec tributary states, Tepeyac, and later, Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac were easily won over. Cortés also used political maneuvering to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. In addition, Cortés replaced kings with those who he knew would be loyal to him. Cortés now controlled many major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortés’s forces while weakening the Aztecs.

Though the largest group of indigenous allies were Tlaxcalans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua and Tepanecs were all important allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated by the Aztecs.

Even the former Triple Alliance member, city of Tetzcoco (or Texcoco) became a Spanish ally. As the rebellion attempt led by the Tetzcocan Tlatoani, Cacamatzin in times of Moctezuma’s reclusion was conjured by the Spanish, Cortés named one of Cacamatzin’s brothers as new tlatoani. He was Ixtlilxóchitl II, who had disagreed with his brother and always proved friendly to the Spanish. Later, Cortés also occupied the city as base for the construction of brigantines. However, one faction of Tetzcocan warriors remained loyal to the Aztecs.

Cortés had to put down internal struggles among the Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than to go home, or at the very least to return to Vera Cruz and wait for reinforcements. Cortés hurriedly quashed this faction, determined to finish what he had started. Not only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself by defying his superior Velázquez. He knew that in defeat he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in success he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the siege of Mexico. In this Cortés showed skill at exploiting the divisions within and between the Aztec states while hiding those of his own troops.

Smallpox reduces the local population

While Cortés was rebuilding his alliances and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck the natives of the Valley of Mexico, including Tenochtitlan. The disease was probably carried by a Spanish slave from Narváez’s forces, who had been abandoned in the capital during the Spanish flight. Smallpox played a crucial role in the Spanish success during the Siege of Tenochtitlan from 1519–1521, a fact not mentioned in some historical accounts. The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late October 1520. The epidemic lasted sixty days, ending by early December.

It was at this event where firsthand accounts were recorded in the Florentine Codex concerning the adverse effects of the smallpox epidemic of the Aztecs, which stated, “many died from this plague, and many others died of hunger. They could not get up and search for food, and everyone else was too sick to care for them, so they starved to death in their beds. By the time the danger was recognized, the plague was well established that nothing could halt it”. The smallpox epidemic caused not only infection to the Mexica peoples, but it weakened able bodied people who could no longer grow and harvest their crops, which in turn led to mass famine and death from malnutrition. While the population of Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco that was formerly controlled by the Aztecs but now occupied by the Spanish.

Reproduction and population growth declined since people of child bearing age either had to fight off the Spanish invasion or died due to famine, malnutrition or other diseases. Diseases like smallpox could travel great distances and spread throughout large populations, which was the case with the Aztecs having lost approximately 50% of its population from smallpox and other diseases. The disease killed an estimated forty percent of the native population in the area within a year. The Aztecs codices give ample depictions of the disease’s progression. It was known to them as the huey ahuizotl (great rash).

Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling for eighty days. Though the disease drastically decreased the numbers of warriors on both sides, it had more dire consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs, as they were much harder hit by the smallpox than the Spanish leaders, who were largely resistant to the disease.

Aztecs regroup

It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action against the Spanish and their allies after they fled the city. One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state of disorder: the smallpox disease ravaged the population, killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new king, Cuauhtémoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on the throne in February 1521. The people were in the process of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged city. It is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the Spanish were gone for good.

Staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would allow them the largest possible army that would be close to its supplies, while affording them the mobility provided by the surrounding lake. Any Spanish assault would have to come through the causeways, where the Aztecs could easily attack them.

Cortés plans and prepares

Cortés’s overall plan was to trap and besiege the Aztecs within their capital. Cortés intended to do that primarily by increasing his power and mobility on the lake, while protecting “his flanks while they marched up the causeway”, previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered the construction of thirteen sloops (brigantines) in Tlaxcala, by his master shipbuilder, Martín López. Cortés continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from ships arriving at Vera Cruz, one ship from Spain loaded with “arms and powder”, and two ships intended for Narváez. Cortés also received one hundred and fifty soldiers and twenty horses from the abandoned Panuco river settlement.

Cortés then decided to move his army to Tetzcoco, where he could assemble and launch the sloops in the creeks flowing into Lake Texcoco. With his main headquarters in Tetzcoco, he could stop his forces from being spread too thin around the lake, and there he could contact them where they needed. Xicotencatl the Elder provided Cortés with ten thousand plus Tlaxcalan warriors under the command of Chichimecatecle. Cortés departed Tlaxcala on the day after Christmas 1520. When his force arrived at the outskirts of Tetzcoco, he was met by seven chieftains stating their leader Coanacotzin begs “for your friendship”. Cortés quickly replaced that leader with the son of Nezahualpilli, baptized as Don Hernando Cortés.

After winning over Chalco and Tlamanalco, Cortés sent eight Mexican prisoners to Cuauhtemoc stating, “all the towns in the neighbourhood were now on our side, as well as the Tlaxcalans”. Cortés intended to blockade Mexico and then destroy it. Once Martin Lopez and Chichimecatecle brought the logs and planks to Texcoco, the sloops were built quickly.:321–25 Cuauhtemoc’s forces were defeated four times in March 1521, around Chalco and Huaxtepec, and Cortés received another ship load of arms and men from the Emperor.

On 6 April 1521, Cortés met with the Caciques around Chalco, and announced he would “bring peace” and blockade Mexico. He wanted all of their warriors ready the next day when he put thirteen launches into the lake. He was then joined at Chimaluacan by twenty thousand warriors from Chalco, Texcoco, Huexotzingo, and Tlascala.:333 Cortés fought a major engagement with seventeen thousand Guatemoc warriors at Xochimilco, before continuing his march northwestward.:340–47 Cortés found Coyoacan, Tacuba, Atzcapotzalco, and Cuauhitlan deserted.

Returning to Texcoco, which had been guarded by his Captain Gonzalo de Sandoval, Cortés was joined by many more men from Castile.:349 Cortés then discovered a plot aimed at his murder, for which he had the main conspirator, Antonio de Villafana, hanged. Thereafter, Cortés had a personal guard of six soldiers, under the command of Antonio de Quiñones.:350–51 The Spaniards also held their third auctioning of branded slaves, Mexican allies captured by Cortés, “who had revolted after giving their obedience to His Majesty”.

Cortés had 84 horsemen, 194 arbalesters and arquebusiers, plus 650 Spanish foot soldiers. He stationed 25 men on every launch, 12 oarsmen, 12 crossbowmen and musketeers, and a captain. Each launch had rigging, sails, oars, and spare oars. Additionally, Cortés had 20,000 warriors from Tlascala, Huexotzinco, and Cholula. The Tlascalans were led by Xicotencatl II and Chichimecatecle. Cortés was ready to start the blockade of Mexico after Corpus Christi (feast).

Cortés put Alvarado in command of 30 horsemen, 18 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, and sent him, accompanied by his brother Jorge de Alvarado, Gutierrez de Badajoz, and Andrés de Monjaraz, to secure Tacuba. Cristóbal de Olid took 30 horsemen, 20 arbalesters and arquebusiers, 175 foot soldiers, and 8,000 Tlaxcalan allies, accompanied by Andrés de Tapia, Francisco Verdugo, and Francisco de Lugo, and secured Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval took 24 horsemen, 14 arquebusiers and arbalesters, 150 Spanish foot soldiers, and 8,000 warriors from Chalco and Huexotzinco, accompanied by Luis Marin and Pedro de Ircio, to secure Ixtlapalapan. Cortés commanded the 13 launches.:356 Cortés’ forces took up these positions on May 22.

The first battles

The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched first towards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their water supply.:359 There were springs there that supplied much of the city’s water by aqueduct; the rest of the city’s water was brought in by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan. The Aztec forces managed to push back the Spanish and halt this assault on the capital with a determined and hard fought land and naval counterattack.

Cortés faced “more than a thousand canoes” after he launched his thirteen launches from Texcoco. Yet a “favorable breeze sprang up”, enabling him to overturn many canoes and kill or capture many. After winning the First Battle on the Lake, Cortés camped with Olid’s forces.

The Aztec canoe fleets worked well for attacking the Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortés decided to make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines could help defend his forces from both sides. He then distributed the launches amongst his attacking forces, four to Alvarado, six for Olid, and two to Sandoval on the Tepeaquilla causeway. After this move, the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish brigantines, and “the fighting went very much in our favour”, according to Díaz.

With his brigantines, Cortés could also send forces and supplies to areas he previously could not, which put a kink in Cuauhtémoc’s plan. To make it more difficult for the Spanish ships to aid the Spanish soldier’s advance along the causeways, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas of the lakes, into which they hoped the Spaniards would stumble, and fixed concealed stakes into the lake bottom to impale the launches. The Spanish horses were also ineffective on the causeways.

Cortés was forced to adapt his plans again, as his initial land campaigns were ineffective. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to occupy the abandoned bridges and barricades as soon as the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Cortés had his forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their positions.:364–366 Cortés also sent orders to “never on any account to leave a gap unblocked, and that all the horsemen were to sleep on the causeway with their horses saddled and bridled all night long”. This allowed the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the city.

The Spaniards prevented food and water from reaching Tenochtitlan along the three causeways. They limited the supplies reaching the city from the nine surrounding towns via canoe, by sending out two of their launches on nightly capture missions. However, the Aztecs were successful in setting an ambush with thirty of their pirogues in an area in which they had placed impaling stakes. They captured two Spanish launches, killing Captain de Portilla and Pedro Barba.

The Spanish advance closer

After capturing two chieftains, Cortés learned of another Aztec plot to ambush his launches with forty pirogues. Cortés then organized a counter-ambush with six of his launches, which was successful, “killing many warriors and taking many prisoners.” Afterwards, the Aztec “did not dare to lay any more ambuscades, or to bring in food and water as openly as before.” Lakeside towns, including Iztapalapa, Churubusco, Culuacan, and Mixquic made peace with the Spaniards. The fighting in Tenochtitlan was described by the American historian Charles Robinson as “desperate” as both sides battled one another in the streets in a ferocious battle where no quarter was given nor asked for.

Guatemoc then attacked all three Spanish camps simultaneously with his entire army on the feast day of St. John. On the Tacuba Causeway across Lake Texcoco connecting Tenochtitlan to the mainland along a street now known as Puente de Alvarado (Alvarado’s Bridge) in Mexico City, Pedro de Alvarado made a mad cavalry charge across a gap in the Causeway. As Alvardo and his cavalry emerged on the other side of the gap with the infantry behind, Aztec canoes filled the gap. Pedro de Alvarado was wounded along with eight men in his camp. Alvarado escaped from the ambush, but five of his men were captured and taken off to the Great Temple to be sacrificed. Much to their horror, the Spanish from their positions could see their captured comrades being sacrificed on the Great Pyramid, which increased their hatred of the Aztecs. At the end of each day, the Spanish gave a prayer: “Oh, thanks be to God that they did not carry me off today to be sacrificed.”

Cortés then decided to push forward a simultaneous attack towards the Mexican market square. However, he neglected to fill in a channel as he advanced, and when the Aztec counter-attacked, Cortés was wounded and almost captured. Cristóbal de Olea and Cristóbal de Guzmán gave their lives for Cortés, and sixty-five Spanish soldiers were captured alive. Guatemoc then had five of their heads thrown at Alvarado’s camp, four thrown at Cortés’ camp, six thrown at Sandoval’s camp, while ten more were sacrificed to the Huichilobos and Texcatlipoca idols.

Díaz relates, “…the dismal drum of Huichilobos sounded again,…we saw our comrades who had been captured in Cortés’ defeat being dragged up the steps to be sacrificed…cutting open their chests, drew out their palpitating hearts which they offered to the idols…the Indian butchers…cut off their arms and legs…then they ate their flesh with a sauce of peppers and tomatoes…throwing their trunks and entrails to the lions and tigers and serpents and snakes.” Guatemoc then “sent the hands and feet of our soldiers, and the skin of their faces…to all the towns of our allies…” The Aztec sacrificed a batch of Spanish prisoners each night for ten nights. The Aztec cast off the cooked limbs of their prisoners to the Tlaxcalans, shouting: “Eat the flesh of these tueles (“Gods”-a reference to the early belief that Spanish were gods) and of your brothers because we are sated with it”.

The Aztec continued to attack the Spaniards on the causeways, “day and night”. The Spanish allies in the cities surrounding the lake lost many lives or “went home wounded”, and “half their canoes were destroyed”. Yet, “they did not help the Aztec any more, for they loathed them.” Yet, of the 24,000 allies, only 200 remained in the three Spanish camps, the rest deciding to return home. Ahuaxpitzactzin (later baptized as Don Carlos), the brother of the Texcoco lord Don Fernando, remained in Cortés’ camp with forty relatives and friends. The Huexotzinco Cacique remained in Sandoval’s camp with fifty men. Alvarado’s camp had Chichimecatecle, the two sons of Lorenzo de Vargas, and eighty Tlascalans. To maintain the advance, Cortés razed every neighborhood he captured, using the rubble to fill up canals and gaps in the causeways to allow his infantry and cavalry to advance in formation, a fighting tactic that favored the Spanish instead of engaging in hand to hand street fighting, which favored the Aztec.

Cortés then concentrated on letting the Aztec “eat up all the provisions they have” and drink brackish water. The Spaniards gradually advanced along the causeways, though without allies. Their launches had freedom of the lake, after devising a method for breaking the impaling stakes the Aztec had placed for them. After twelve days of this, the Spanish allies realized the prophesy by the Aztec idols, that the Spaniards would be dead in ten days was false. Two thousand warriors returned from Texcoco, as did many Tlascan warriors under Tepaneca from Topeyanco, and those from Huexotzingo and Cholula.

Guatemoc then enlisted his allies in Matlazingo, Malinalco, and Tulapa, in attacking the Spaniards from the rear. However, Cortés sent Andrés de Tapia, with 20 horsemen and 100 soldiers, and Gonzalo de Sandoval, with 20 horsemen and 80 soldiers, to help his allies attack this new threat. They returned with two of the Matlazingo chieftains as prisoners.

As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their stranglehold on Tenochtitlan tightened, and famine began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because of the occupied causeways. Cortés also had the advantage of fighting a mostly defensive battle. Though Cuauhtémoc organized a large-scale attack on Alvarado’s forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had little aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal tributaries had difficulty sending forces, because it would leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.

Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a “snowball effect,” in that if one tributary left, others might follow. Thus, they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were intercepted, and even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked. The situation inside the city was desperate: because of the famine and the smallpox there were already thousands of victims, women offered to the gods even their children’ clothes, so most children were stark naked. Many Aztecs drank dirty, brackish water because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery. The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.

The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did, preventing Cortés’s forces from being entirely victorious. However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz, and, somewhat renewed, finally entered the main part of Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs’ last stand

Cortés then ordered a simultaneous advance of all three camps towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. Alvarado’s company made it there first, and Gutierrez de Badajoz advanced to the top of the Huichilcbos cue, setting it afire and planting their Spanish banners. Cortés’ and Sandoval’s men were able to join them there after four more days of fighting.

The Spanish forces and their allies advanced into the city. Despite inflicting heavy casualties, the Aztecs could not halt the Spanish advance. While the fighting in the city raged, the Aztecs cut out and ate the hearts of 70 Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to Huitzilopochtli. By August, many of the native inhabitants had fled Tlatelolco. Cortés sent emissaries to negotiate with the Tlatelolcas to join his side, but the Tlatelolcas remained loyal to the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Tlaxcalans waged a merciless campaign against the Aztecs who had long oppressed them as for hundreds of years the Tlaxcalans had been forced to hand over an annual quota of young men and women to be sacrificed and eaten at the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan, and now the Tlaxcalans saw their chance for revenge. The American historian Charles Robinson wrote: “Centuries of hate and the basic viciousness of Mesoamerican warfare combined in violence that appalled Cortés himself”. In letter to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Cortés wrote:

“We had more trouble in preventing our allies from killing with such cruelty than we had in fighting the enemy. For no race, however savage, has ever practiced such fierce and unnatural cruelty as the natives of these parts. Our allies also took many spoils that day, which we were unable to prevent, as they numbered more than 150,000 and we Spaniards only some nine hundred. Neither our precautions nor our warnings could stop their looting, though we did all we could…I had posted Spaniards in every street, so that when the people began to come out they might prevent our allies from killing those wretched people, whose numbers was uncountable. I also told the captains of our allies that on no account should any of those people be slain; but there were so many that we could not prevent more than fifteen thousand being killed and sacrificed (by the Tlaxcalans) that day”.

Throughout the battles with the Spanish, the Aztecs still practiced the traditional ceremonies and customs. Tlapaltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be outfitted to wear the quetzal owl costume. He was supplied with darts sacred to Huitzilopochtli, which came with wooden tips and flint tops. When he came, the Spanish soldiers appeared scared and intimidated. They chased the owl-warrior, but he was neither captured nor killed. The Aztecs took this as a good sign, but they could fight no more, and after discussions with the nobles, Cuauhtémoc began talks with the Spanish.

After several failed peace overtures to Guatemoc, Cortés ordered Sandoval to attack that part of the city in which Guatemoc had retreated. As hundreds of canoes filled the lake fleeing the doomed city, Cortés sent his brigantines out to intercept them. Guatemoc attempted to flee with his property, gold, jewels, and family in fifty pirogues, but was soon captured by Sandoval’s launches, and brought before Cortés.

The surrender

The Aztec forces were destroyed and the Aztecs surrendered on 13 August 1521, Julian Date.:404 Cortés demanded the return of the gold lost during La Noche Triste. Under torture, by burning their feet with oil, Cuauhtémoc and the lord of Tacuba, confessed to dumping his gold and jewels into the lake. Yet, little gold remained, as earlier, a fifth had been sent to Spain and another kept by Cortés. “In the end…the remaining gold all fell to the King’s officials.”

Cuauhtémoc was taken hostage the same day and remained the titular leader of Tenochtitlan, under the control of Cortés, until he was hanged for treason in 1525 while accompanying a Spanish expedition to Guatemala.

Remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish forces, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Spanish and Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days.

Almost all of the nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly young women and very young children. It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine with any exactitude the number of people killed during the siege. As many as 240,000 Aztecs are estimated to have died, according to the Florentine Codex, during the eighty days. This estimate is greater, however, than some estimates of the entire population (60,000–300,000) even before the smallpox epidemic of 1520. Spanish observers estimated that approximately 100,000 inhabitants of the city died from all causes.

Although some reports put the number as low as forty, the Spanish probably lost around 100 soldiers in the siege, while thousands of Tlaxcalans perished. It is estimated that around 1,800 Spaniards died from all causes during the two-year campaign—from Vera Cruz to Tenochtitlan. (Thomas, pp. 528–29) The remaining Spanish forces consisted of 800–900 Spaniards, eighty horses, sixteen pieces of artillery, and Cortés’s thirteen brigantines. Other sources estimate that around 860 Spanish soldiers and 20.000 Tlaxcalan warriors were killed during all the battles in this region from 1519–1521.

It is well accepted that Cortés’ indigenous allies, which may have numbered as many as 200,000 over the three-year period of the conquest, were indispensable to his success.

After the conquest

Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days, causing the inhabitants utter famine, directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city, and began its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.

Tenochtitlan’s main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. This stone disc is 3.25 meters in diameter (or 10.5 ft). These finds are held at the Templo Mayor Museum.

The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco. This resulted in the ruins now resting at an angle instead of horizontally.

Mexico City’s Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan’s original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters in diameter and weighs over 20 tons. It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was made around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and a prophecy for the future.

In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five metres below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults and a complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.