Cacaxtla was the capital of region inhabited by the Olmeca-Xicalanca people. The origins of the Olmeca-Xicalanca are not known with certainty, but they are assumed to come from the Gulf coast region, and were perhaps Maya settlers who arrived in this part of central Mexico around 400 CE.

The term “Olmeca-Xicalanca” was first mentioned by Tlaxcalan historian Diego Muñoz Camargo at the end of the 16th century. This historian described Cacaxtla as the principal settlement of the “Olmeca”, although what we today refer to as the Olmec culture ended ~400 BCE, that is, almost 800 years earlier.

After the fall of the nearby city Cholula (ca. 650 – 750) — in which the Cacaxtlecas might have been involved — Cacaxtla became the hegemonic power in this part of the Tlaxcala–Puebla valley. Warriors from Cacaxtla appear to have taken over Cholula for a time, but they were ultimately expelled by the Toltecs. Its ascendancy came to an end around 900 CE and, by 1000, the city had been abandoned.

The site was rediscovered in 1974 by looters, but quickly came to the attention of archaeologists that same year. Archaeologists Eduardo Merlo Juárez, Diana Lopez-Sotomayor and Daniel Molina-Feal dedicated over six years of their life excavating the site.

The first work to be done in the area consisted on clearing the original tunnel opened by the looters, Archeologist Diana Lopez-Sotomayor, later appointed project manager, recalled her first view of the life-sized characters depicted in the murals as an overwhelming experience.

As further figures appeared on the mural, the area of excavation had to be enlarged and several constructive stages were discovered.

The first area to be excavated was the main mural, known as the “Gran Basamento”, and the immediate purpose of the work was to protect and secure the murals and other structures from the weather and looters.

The centre of the city of Cacaxtla was the 200-metre-long, 25-metre-high Gran Basamento – a natural platform offering a fine defensive position and commanding views over the surrounding terrain.

The city’s main religious and civil buildings were located on this platform, as were the residences of the priest class. Several other smaller pyramids and temple bases stand in the vicinity of the main platform.

Because Cacaxtla’s main basamento was not excavated until the 1980s, many of the original coloured wall decorations have been preserved and can be appreciated in situ by visitors to the site.

Of particular interest is the fact that most of the murals seem to combine the symbology of Altiplano cultures with influences from the Maya, making Cacaxtla unique in this regard.

Battle Mural (Mural de la Batalla)

The most famous of Cacaxtla’s preserved paintings is the “Battle Mural”, or Mural de la batalla, located in the northern plaza of the basamento. Dating from prior to 700, it is placed on the sloping limestone wall of a temple base and is split in two by a central staircase. It depicts two groups of warriors locked in battle: on the one side are jaguar warriors, armed with spears, obsidian knives, and round shields, who are locked in battle with an army of bird warriors (some of whom are shown naked and in various stages of dismemberment).

Priestly Attire (Vestidos de Sacerdotes)

Cacaxtla conserves the oldest mural painting featuring a human figure and symbols from other cultures (Teotihuacan, Maya, Mixtec and Totonac). These paintings portray the bird man and the feline man, possibly ruler – priests of the Olmecs Xicalancas who inhabited Cacaxtla between the years 600 and 900 AD. The bird man is associated with Quetzalcoatl, the generous deity who taught people the arts and agriculture. The feline man is associated with the rains that fertilize the earth.

Venus Temple (Templo de Venus)

The Venus Temple that is also located underneath the roof contains two murals on two columns of two figures. On the right column, there is a male figure with a mask covering his face. He wears a skirt with the Venus symbol on the front and has a scorpion tail. On the left, a fragment of the other figure is visible, probably representing a woman with a skirt also bearing a Venus symbol. The presence of Venus on the garments of the figures and their representation around both of them indicate that the murals allude to some astronomical phenomenon or calendrical data associated with the planet Venus, which at that time was related to warfare and sacrifice.

Mural del Templo Rojo

The Mural del Templo Rojo is located at the Governors’ Room (Las Habitactiones de los Gobernantes). It is located in the staircase leading to the room, and only one side is visible to the public. The other side of the staircase is not facing a public walkway, but is displayed as a reproduction in the corresponding museum building.

The archaeological site is maintained by the government’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) and is open Tuesday to Sunday, from 8:00 to 17:30.

The admission is 65 MXN on weekdays, and free on Sunday for Mexican Nationals.
Permission to record videos costs another $50 MXN while photography is free.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The name comes from various Nahuatl words “cuahuitl” (“tree”), “man” (“next” or “in line”), and “tla” (“abundance”), which together are interpreted as a place of aligned trees.

The municipality is located in the eastern half of the state of Tlaxcala, in the Central Mexican Highlands. It has an average altitude of 2,500 meters above sea level.

The geography of the municipality has three types of relief. About 20% are rugged mountains (located in the far north and far south), about thirty percent are semi-flat (located in the north and south, and over half are flat, in the center.

Its far south is part of the Malinche Volcano.

The surface water of the area consists of small streams, most of which run only during the rainy season, running south to north. These have created ravines such as those called Tecoac, Xonemila, San Luca, and Los Plares.

Most of the water supply is from underground, accessed through 62 wells.

The climate is semi-dry and temperate. The most rain falls during the rainy season from May to September with an average annual rainfall of 119.3 mm. The warmest months are from March to May and the coldest in December and January.

The average annual minimum is 5.4 °C and the average annual maximum is 23.2 °C.

About thirty-five percent of the municipality has wild vegetation, mostly near La Malinche. This vegetation varies by altitude with holm oak species prevalent in the lower elevations along with some pines and bushes.

Above 2,800 meters, oyamel fir and pines can be found. Above 4,300 meters alpine grasslands and juniper are found. In total, over sixty percent of the tree species are conifers, and the rest are broad-leafed.

Wildlife is mostly found outside the urban area and includes rabbits, hares (Lepus californicus), birds, and reptiles.

Pre Hispanic period

The first settlement in the Huamantla area was south of the current city. It became one of thirteen villages that formed a political union that lasted from 1800 to 1200 BCE and at its height had a population of about 3,500 inhabitants.

The village near Huamantla extended over an area of between three and five hectares.

The next regional center of power was in a settlement which is now an archeological site called Los Cerritos de Natividad, east of Huamantla, whose influence extended over fourteen communities.

This era is distinguished by the building of pyramids and planned urban centers.

This was followed by the Texoloc era, with its center of power at Tlalencaleca between 800 and 600 BCE. Architecture included talud-tablero pyramids and ceramics which show influence from the west of Mexico and the Gulf Coast.

The following Tezoquipan era is considered to be the cultural and technological apex of the region reflected by its water system, architecture, and trade connections.

This era extended from 350 BCE to 100 CE, and at its height included 297 settlements, fourteen of which were major cities. What is now Huamantla was three of these settlements, with pyramids and planned layouts centered on a plaza.

The decline of this area is called the Tenanyecac phase, which lasted from 100–650 CE.

The decline is due to the rise of Teotihuacan and Cholula. People migrated away from the Tlaxcala area and eventually, the zone became tributary provinces of the two powers. Teotihuacan established a trade corridor through Huamantla to connect it to points east and south, but no major settlements.

Sometime after this, between 650 and 900 CE, there began Otomi migration into the Huamantla Valley and other parts of Tlaxcala in various waves. There is also evidence of Olmeca-Xicalanca and Tlaxco influence, with the rise of Cacaxtla.

The fall of Teotihuacan allowed for local control of the trade corridor.

However, from then until the colonial period, the major cultural force was Otomi. Much of this history is known from the Huamantla Codex, the largest document of its kind and one of the few that document the history of the Otomi.

It is in 9 fragments: 7 at the National Library of Anthropology and History in Mexico City and 2 in Germany at the Berlin State Library.

The central story of the codex is a battle between newly arrived Otomis against those already established and aligned with Tlaxco at Atlangatepec. Victory went to the newcomers, allowing them passage and settlement near the Malinche Volcano, called the Tecoac dominion.

These Tecoac Otomi were still a political force when the Spanish arrived. The document was likely commissioned shortly after the conquest, possibly by the Franciscans as the church and monastery of Huamantla are represented.

The last indigenous consolidation of power in Huamantla was the creation of the Tlaxcallan dominion, from which the state gets its name. This was a Chichimeca political union that formed around 1100 CE, pushed out the Olmeca-Xilcalancas, and divided the territory into four interdependent dominions.

Otomi immigration still continued to the area after this, especially after the fall of Tula in 1168. Huamantla belonged to the dominion of Tecoac, one of the four that made up the Tlaxcallan kingdom.

This area was first to have contact with Cortés and his army which made an incursion here in 1519 to be attacked, mostly by Otomi vassals. It was the first time the Spanish used their advanced weaponry and quickly dispersed the native soldiers.

Colonial period

Tlaxcala’s role in the Conquest of Mexico allowed indigenous authorities to maintain a number of privileges with Spanish settlers.

In 1528, an indigenous delegation went to Spain and one of their tasks was to solicit permission to found the settlement of Huamantla, with the name of San Luis Cuahmanco as the successor to Tzatlán, one of the indigenous power centers.

Permission was granted in 1535, but Antonio de Mendoza ignored the royal seal and assigned lands here to Alonso Muñoz Camargo, Francisco Luca García, Eugenio Leal Chocolatzin, Diego Guevara, and Juan de Aquino in the center of the new town as founders and outlying lands to forty other families between 1539 and 1543.

The following monarch Phillip II disavowed the order. This prompted the Cabildo de Indios (Indian Council) to send an ambassador to Spain, with the Lienzo de Tlaxcala to remind the Crown of its obligations.

Evangelization of the area was done by the Franciscans starting in 1524. The order began construction of the San Luis Obispo monastery in 1567 by Friar Pedro Meléndez.

It was completed in 1585 and replaced the ceremonial center of Tizatlan as the area’s major religious center.

This was followed by the establishment of the school and eleven hermitages and churches around the city still found in the neighborhoods of El Calvario, La Trinidad, La Santa Cruz, San Miguel, San Juan, San Francisco, San Sebastián, Santa Ana, San Antonio, La Caridad, and San Diego.

Huamantla quickly became the regional center for eastern Tlaxcala with an agricultural economy that converted the valley from forest to farmland by the end of the 16th century producing corn, wheat, sheep, and more.

Spanish incursion here was mostly due to the buying of land from indigenous authorities, but the labor supply on which these Spanish depended was mostly controlled by the Cabildo de Indios in the city of Tlaxcala. For this reason, the Spanish in Huamantla petitioned colonial authorities to divide the province, separating Huamantla from the city of Tlaxcala.

However, in 1654, the viceroy Duke of Albuquerque denied the petition. Despite this, Spanish landholdings continued to rise.

Another tactic by the Spanish was to move control of parish churches from the Franciscan monks to regular clergy under the control of the bishop of Puebla in the mid-17th century.

This was opposed by the Franciscans and caused instability as the regular priests did not speak Otomi and did not comply with promises to protect the indigenous against Spanish abuses. They also appropriated the belongings of indigenous brotherhoods.

Despite setbacks, indigenous authorities managed to maintain more influence here than in other parts of New Spain in keeping Spanish landholders in check. It even allowed the Cabildo in Tlaxcala to demand more influence over local authorities in Huamantla and even led to the direct election of the mayor by the local, mostly indigenous, population in 1741.

A second attempt to separate Huamantla from the city of Tlaxcala occurred in the second half of the 18th century, but this was also unsuccessful. However, during this time, the population became less indigenous with more influx of Spanish and criollos, lessening the influence of the Cabildo de Indios. Haciendas of the area consolidated. Those of Huamantla tended to be smaller but more productive because of the wetter climate and better soils.

In 1785, colonial authorities integrated Tlaxcala as part of the province of Puebla, but this was reversed in 1793. At this time, Tlaxcala reorganized into seven “cuarteles,” one of which being Huamantla, which included Cuapiaxtla, San Juan Ixtenco, San Nicolás Terrenate and San Pablo Zitlaltepec along with the city.

Independence in the 21st century

In 1810, most of the indigenous population of the state supported the movement of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, but as the territory was surrounded by royalist Puebla, attempts to participate in the Mexican War of Independence were stifled.

However, there were small insurrections in Huamantla as well as Tlaxco and Calpulalpan. In 1821, near the end of the war, Tlaxcalan authorities openly supported the Plan de Iguala.

Huamantla gained municipality status in 1822, but shortly after, there was another effort to unite Tlaxcala with Puebla.

Efforts to keep Tlaxcala an independent state were led by the parish priest of Huamantla, Miguel Valentín, which eventually prevailed due to opposition to the empire model and in favor of a federal republic.

The state proclaimed in 1846 was reorganized into three divisions, Tlaxcala, Tlaxco, and Huamantla. In 1847 the city acquired the title of “heroic” because of its participation in efforts against US invasion during the Mexican-American War.

During the Reform War, Huamantla the capital of Tlaxcala was briefly moved to Huamantla by Conservative forces in 1858, and the city was taken by the French in 1863. The capital moved back to the city of Tlaxcala after the ouster of the French.

During the rest of the century, the city grew with the construction of a railroad, which allowed haciendas to have access to markets in Mexico City as well as the states of Puebla, Hidalgo, and Veracruz.

Haciendas grew in number, size, and power into the early 20th century, even taking over lands that had previously been communal and unilaterally restricting water supply to the city.

As in the rest of Mexico, discontent with the Porfirio Díaz regime grew as haciendas required employees to work from 4 a.m. to 7 p.m. and paid them only in coupons good at the hacienda store.

At the first sign of rebellion during the Mexican Revolution, the Porfirian governor of Tlaxcala dispatched troops to Huamantla and other places and was able to suppress early efforts such as that by Juan Cuamatzi, who was executed on February 26, 1911.

Soon after the mayor of Huamantla along with others resigned from his position. Later, the San Diego del Pinar Hacienda in the municipality was attacked by Zapatistas in 1913 and then later the same year by rebels fleeing the federal army.

The second attack was repelled by the hacienda. In that same year, the first revolutionary troops took control of the city.

After the Revolution ended, Huamantla grew again adding commerce and industry to its economy. In the 1940s, the first modern factories were built, making powdered milk and cream, cookies pork cold cuts, fertilizer, and mole.

These were followed by various others producing clothing and other textiles.

Telephone service was established in 1932. Media channels were also established such as newspapers and radio station XEHT, which still operates. The first flights to the city occurred in 1953.

The city has since grown to include sprawling suburbs. In 2007, the city was named a “Pueblo Mágico” by the Mexican government’s tourism secretariat, in part because of its celebrations of the Virgin of Charity and the Huamantlada in August.

To achieve the designation, it also renovated much of its downtown, especially Parque Juárez.

The city of Huamantla is in the east of the state of Tlaxcala, about 45 km from the state capital.

The main entrance to the city is marked by the Monumento al Toro (Bull Monument), a bronze sculpture by architect Diódoro Rodríguez Anaya. It is dedicated to the region’s bull-raising and fighting tradition.

The city is centered on its main plaza, called Parque Juárez (Juarez Park), which contains gardens and a kiosk from the beginning of the 20th century. The blocks around it conserve many historic buildings from the colonial period up through the Porfirio Diáz era, with simple facades and iron-railed balconies.

For this reason and the celebrations related to Our Lady of Charity in August, the city has been named a “Pueblo Mágico.”

The main colonial-era constructions are the parish of San Luis Obispo and the former monastery of the same name, both of which were begun in the 16th century and named after Huamantla’s patron saint, Louis of Toulouse.

The monastery complex was built between 1567 and 1585 and has a number of elements, focused on the main church with a simple facade. Above the door, there is a niche containing an image of Saint Anthony and on either side of this, there are the coats of arms of the order.

The bell tower has two levels and Solomonic columns. Inside the church, there is a chapel dedicated to a Christ figure called the Señor del Desposo. The main altar of this church is Churrigueresque with Neoclassical altars on the sides.

To the side, there is a large open chapel with five arches supported by Tuscan columns with Doric capitals. The cloister area has been remodeled various times but original elements such as Tuscan columns remain.

The Third Order chapel contains the complex’s oldest oil paintings and a Baroque main altar.

The San Luis Obispo Parish church is built of light stone, with a contrasting dark grey main portal. In this portal, there are six niches filled with the same number of statues made from alabaster.

It has a single bell tower and a small bell gable. Inside, the main altar is Baroque with an image of Louise of Toulouse. There is also a Solomonic altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary and one to Jesus the Nazarene and oil paintings from the colonial period, including one of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Miguel Cabrera.

Also facing the park is the municipal palace, it is in Neoclassical style with two floors, both with balconies, framed by cornices, a style common to Huamantla. It has a simple main entrance above which are decorative elements including the Mexican coat of arms, a clock, and a small bell. Inside, there is a mural by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin, a reproduction of the Huamantla Codex, and a photographic collection.

Modern Mexican puppetry is traced to Huamantla, especially to the Rosete Aranda family which began their traveling puppet show in 1850 and lasted over a century.

Today, the city is home to the Rosete Aranda National Puppet Museum, the only one of its kind in Latin America, located in a former mansion facing the main square. It contains eight main halls containing puppets, sets, and other paraphernalia from this family, other puppeteers from Mexico, and puppets from other countries such as Germany, Spain, France, Italy, India, and Indonesia. It also has a collection of pre-Hispanic dolls/puppets with movable parts, including some from nearby Cacaxtla.

The Huamantla Cultural Center is located next to the puppet museum, occupying the former priest’s residence constructed between the 18th and 19th centuries. It has eight halls dedicated to various temporary exhibits and workshops.

The Museo Taurino (Bullfighting Museum) is located in a building from the 18th century, next to the city’s bullring.

The museum opened in 1981 after remodeling and today it hosts a collection of event posters from the 20th century, models of various bullrings in Mexico, matador outfits, and photographs.

Outside of the city, there are three main communities: Benito Juárez with 3,150 inhabitants, Ignacio Zaragoza with 4,523, and San José Xocohtencatl with 3,899. All of these are rural communities with economies based on agriculture and livestock.

In addition, the municipality contains multiple haciendas, most of which have been broken up but some are still in operation as private property:

• San Cristóbal Lagunas (established 18th century)
• El Balcón (19th century)
• Santa Barbara (18th century)
• La Compañía (17th century)
• Guadalupe (late 19th century)
• San Francisco Soltepec (18th century)
• San Diego Notario (18th century)
• San Martín Notario (18th century)
• El Molino (19th century)
• La Natividad (18th century)
• San Francisco Tecoac (19th century)
• San Miguel Báez (19th century)
• Santa Ana Ríos (18th century)
• Santiago Brito (19th century)
• Santo Domingo (19th century)
• Xalpatlahuaya (18th century)
• San Antonio Atenco (late 19th century)
• Xonecuila (late 19th century)
• San Pedro El Batán (18th century).

In the municipality, there are twenty-one archeological sites.
In the Santa Anita neighborhood of the city, there are pre-Hispanic columns on private property.

Feria de Huamantla

The main cultural event of the year in Huamantla is the Feria de Huamantla (Huamantla Fair) which runs from 31 July to 21 August. Its origin is likely due to the worship of the goddess Xochiquetzal, goddess of love, flowers, and arts.

After the Conquest, the Spanish encouraged the veneration of the Virgin Mary instead. In the 17th century, the Franciscans built a hermitage to Our Lady of the Assumption. The image found here today has unknown origins but has since become associated with miracles. The feria attracts thousands of visitors from both Mexico and abroad.

This image is better known as Our Lady of Charity (Virgen de la Caridad). There are two main events during the months, the creation of “carpets” from colored sawdust, flowers, and other materials and a running of the bulls called the Huamantlada.

The carpets are made constantly in the atrium of this image’s basilica and other churches from the 31 to the 15; however, 6 km of carpets are created on “the night no one sleeps,” that of August 14, working all night in preparation for the main procession with the image on August 15. Before the procession begins, the image is dressed in new robes, and the image is followed by an entourage with candles and fireworks.

The Huamantlada is held on August 19. The first event occurred in 1954 and has since grown in popularity. It is based on the running of the bulls in Pamplona and was originally called the “Pamplonada”.

The first run had seven bulls which have since grown in number to about twenty-five. The running of the bulls is more dangerous as the animals are released into the streets from two directions. This event is the most famous of its kind in Mexico.

During the month there are also donkey and car races, a children’s version of running with the bulls, a parade with floats, a feria queen, a paella festival, cockfights, a chess tournament, and the Festival International de Títeres Rosete Aranda.

During this month and other traditional festivals, one can see traditional dances such as Ketzalines, Vaqueros, Vasarios, and Matlachines danced to bands playing wind instruments, and traditional dress, which is of Otomi origin.

For men, it consists of white pants and a shirt, which is embroidered with figures and fretwork.

For women, it consists of a heavily embroidered colorful skirt, embroidered blouse, and rebozo. Typical foods include mixiotes, barbacoa, mole with turkey, Tocatlán style chicken along with crystallized fruit, and a dessert item called “muégano.”

From Mexico City, it’s a two-hour drive east to the municipality of Nanacamilpa.
There are a few local businesses that offer the firefly viewing experience.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The city is located in the central Mexican highlands 2,239 metres (7,346 feet) above sea level, in a valley of the same name, from which the Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes can be seen in the distance. The main elevations in the municipality are El Cerro Ostol at 2,460 metres (8,070 feet) and El Cerro Tepepan at 2,320 metres (7,610 feet).

The main river in the municipality is the Zahuapan, which is part of the Balsas River region and the basin of the Atoyac River. Other rivers include the Huizcalotla, Negros, Tlacuetla and Lixcatlat. There are remnants of the former lake of Acuitlapilco as well. Other sources of fresh water include a spring in Acuitlapilco and a stream in Tepehitec which runs during the rainy season.

The climate is temperate and semi-moist with most rain in the summer. The average annual high temperatures is 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) and the average low is 7.2 °C (45.0 °F).

The higher elevations of the municipality have forests of pine, holm oak and white cedar. The mid range elevations are mostly secondary vegetation dominated by bush and low growing trees. The flat areas are dominated by a number of dry tolerate plants such as agave, nopal cactus and grasses. Because of the expansion of the urban area, the municipally only has small mammals such as rabbits, squirrels and opossums, along with some species of birds and reptiles as wildlife.

The name Tlaxcala most likely comes from a Nahuatl phrase which means “place of tortillas.” The Aztec glyph for the Mesoamerican dominion is two hills from which emerge a pair of hands making a tortilla.

The site of the modern city did not have a settlement for most of the pre Hispanic era. The area was ruled by a coalition of four dominions called Tepeticpac, Ocotelolco, Tizatlan and Quiahuiztlan which united in the 14th century to defend themselves against the Aztecs and other enemies. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Tlaxcala was one of the most important areas of Mesoamerica with commercial ties to the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean as well as Central America.

As the Aztec Empire grew, it conquered Tlaxcala’s neighbors but left the dominion in order to perform annual ritual combat called the “flower wars” which aimed to not conquer but capture soldiers for sacrifice. The conquest of the surrounding area also cut off Tlaxcala’s commerce. This remained the case until the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century. Hernán Cortés took advantage of this situation, enlisting the Tlaxcalans as allies against the Aztecs, given them a base to attack from and regroup after the La Noche Triste when they were initially expelled from Tenochtitlan.

Despite the military alliance of the Tlaxcalans, they did not have a single capital. After the Spanish conquest terminated, the Europeans selected the current site to solidify their hold on the Tlaxcalans as well as have a base for evangelization. The most likely time that the city was founded was spring of 1522. Tlaxcala was the fifth diocese to be established in the Americas and the second in Mexico after Yucatán. The first bishop was Julian Garces and the seat was established in 1527. However, since there was a cathedral in the city of Puebla and not in Tlaxcala, the seat was moved to Puebla in 1539 and has remained there since. The original territory of the diocese included the states of Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Tabasco, Hidalgo and Guerrero, but as new diocese were erected, the territory reduced to the present, states of Puebla and Tlaxcala. In 1903, the name of the Diocese of Tlaxcala was changed to the Diocese of Puebla.

At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Tlaxcala area was heavily populated but with epidemics, emigrations and the construction of the Nochistongo canal to drain the Valley of Mexico, most of the indigenous population disappeared. A document of 1625 states that there were 300,000 in the city in the 16th century but only 700 remained by that time it was written. The city was begun in 1537 with the construction of the San Francisco monastery. The city became the center of Tlaxcala identity during the colonial period. Its commerce was originally centered in the main square but was eventually moved to the outskirts of town. One important project that was traded here was the cochineal insect, used to make red dye. When New Spain was divided into five major provinces, Tlaxcala became the capital of one of them, with roughly the same dimensions as the pre Hispanic coalition of dominions. Tlaxcala was promised certain rights as an ally during the Conquest. When a number of these were not met, a codex was produced here called the Lienzo de Tlaxcala as a complaint to the Spanish Crown. However, despite the complaints, most of the indigenous eventually lost their lands around the city and lost many of their commerce rights in it.

In 1692, a revolt occurred against Governor Manuel de Bustamante y Bustillo due to the scarcity of grain.

The city of Tlaxcala became a municipality in 1813, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812.

French forces were forced out of the city in 1867 after which Tlaxcalan forces went with Porfirio Díaz to liberate Puebla and after that, Querétaro and Mexico City.

During the end of the 19th century, the politics of the city were dominated by Próspero Cahuantzi, who promoted public works such as kiosks, streets, public markets, bridges and government buildings. The city changed from oil lamps to electric light in the historic center, the state government palace was remodeled and the Xicohténcatl Theater was built. Electricity for the city was generated through a hydroelectric works in a canal on the Los Negros River.

After the Mexican Revolution, the city recovered and began to grow again, reaching a population of 6,000 by 1927. In the mid 20th century, public education was enhanced at the middle and high school levels. More public works were undertaken to give the city the appearance it has today.

The city center is compact and filled with colonial era building painted in colors such as burnt umber, salmon pink and mustard yellow. Most of these buildings are centered on the main square called the Plaza de la Constitución. This square measures 75 metres (246 feet) on each side and was established when the Spanish laid out the city in 1524. The current name was given in 1813 to honor the Cádiz Constitution as well as the Mexican constitutions of 1857 and 1917. In the center of this square is the Santa Cruz Fountain which was donated to the city by Philip IV in 1646. There is also a kiosk which was constructed in the 19th century.

The Portal Hidalgo is on the east side of the main square, built as commercial space in 1550. It is still used as such today although the structures have been modified since then as seen in the differences in the columns and sizes of the arches. The city hall was moved from its centuries old home in the “Casas Reales” to this complex. The interior is dominated by the city council chamber (Salón de Cabildos) along with various municipal offices. On the lower level inside its section of the arches, there is a cultural space called “La Tlaxcalteca” which sells regional handcrafts and other goods as well as books about Tlaxcala’s history.

The Capilla Real de Indias or Royal Indian Chapel was built in the 16th century as a church for indigenous nobility. At the end of the 18th century, a fire destroyed the nave and much of the rest collapsed as a result of an earthquake. The ruins remained abandoned until the structure was restored in 1984 to house the state’s judicial branch.

The Casa de Piedra (“Stone House”) is located on the southwest corner of the main plaza. It was built in the 16th century as a notary office and home. Its name comes from the solid gray sandstone used in its construction, unique to the area.

The former Franciscan monastery was built between 1537 and 1542, located on a hill on the edge of the historic center, away from the main square. It was one of the first four to be built by the Franciscans in the Americas, accredited to Martín de Valencia. The layout of the complex is unusual with the cloister on the left or north side of the church. The church still has its original roof made from large beams of wood. The main nave of the church has one of the few examples of Moorish art in the Americas. It has a large atrium and various chapels, with only two of the atrium chapels remaining. There is a tower located on the outside wall away from the main building. The east atrium is historically important as the site of the first evangelist plays performed in Nahuatl starting in 1537. Today, this cloister area is the Regional Museum of Tlaxcala. The main gateway to the monastery has the coat-of-arms of Castillas and the year 1629, mostly likely to mark the centennial of the monastery’s founding. The after its use as a monastery ended, the cloister was used as a military barracks, a hospital and a prison. Only some of its original murals remain. It has been the home of the Regional Museum since 1981. The museum contains five halls dedicated to the history of the state from the pre-Hispanic period to the 19th century and it has two halls for temporary exhibits. The museum also hosts conferences and cultural events. Other services include those related to research. The museum is operated by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) .

The Jorge Aguilar “El Ranchero” Bullring is on a site next to the former monastery. It was one of the first established in Tlaxcala in 1788. In 1817, the current structure was built of adobe and stone. The popularity of the sport spurred a number of ranches dedicated to raising bulls including the Tepeyahualco, Piedras Negras and Mimiahuapan. It is located next to the former monastery and also serves as the site for the annual Tlaxcala Fair.

The State Government Palace is the most important civic construction from the 16th century. It has three sections. The east wing was known as the Casas Reales, the center Casas Consistoriales and the west wing as the Alhóndiga. The building is used for state government offices. The interior contain a number of murals by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin, which depict the history of Tlaxcala.

San José parish church

The San José parish church was originally called the parish of San Juan y San José (Saints John and Joseph), constructed during the 18th century in Baroque style. This site was once the cathedral of the Diocese of Tlaxcala, but this has since been merged with Puebla, with its seat in the city of Puebla. The building has orange walls with cobalt blue Talavara ceramic tiles and a façade decorated in mortar work. The main entrance is an arch supported by pilasters and flanked by columns. The upper part of the façade has a choral window also flanked by columns. The left hand tower has one level with arches, flanked by Tuscan pilasters topped by a small dome covered in Talavera tile. In 1864, the cupola and roof were destroyed by an earthquake. The current ones with Talavera tile are from the reconstruction. The interior is decorated in Neoclassical style with a Latin cross layout although there are still some Baroque and Churrigueresque altars. The main altar is Neoclassical but with an altarpiece which is Baroque. The upper choir area has an elaborate wood railing. On each side of the area below the choir area there are two Churrigueresque altars. In the two side chapels there are oil paintings by Manuel Caro as well as two holy water fonts of sculpted stone that has images of the god Camaxtli and the Spanish coat of arms.

The former municipal palace was constructed in the middle of the 16th century as a place for the representatives of the four Tlaxcala dominions to meet. It has two levels with arches on the lower level of the façade. The main entranceway has three arches with reliefs over stone columns. The upper level of the façade has a seal and a pediment with clock. The interior has a terrace with three arches supported by Tuscan columns. The main stairway has a relief depicting Xicohténcatl Axayacatzin as well as reliefs of the four Tlaxcalan leaders at the time of the Spanish arrival.

The Former Legislative Palace is now home to the state’s Secretary of Tourism. It was built in the 19th century with a façade of gray sandstone supported by pilasters with capitols. The building functioned as the site of the state’s legislature from 1901 to 1982.

The Xicohténcatl Theater was built in 1873 with one of its early main productions being a re-enactment of the Battle of Puebla. Built during the Porfirio Díaz period, it was remodeled after the Mexican Revolution to Neoclassical from 1923 to 1945. The latest restoration of the building occurred in 1984 done by the Instituto Tlaxcalteca de Cultura. The Xicohténcatl. It has a sandstone façade, which is principally in Neoclassical style. This façade has twelve pilasters with Corinthian capitols that mark off the windows, doors and niches. The lower level has three entrances and the upper level has three balconies with arches. The interior has a ceiling with a large soffit with an Art Nouveau style painting by John Fulton representing the Muses along with Tlaxcala landscapes.

The Tlaxcala Museum of Art was inaugurated in 2004, located in a building constructed in the 19th century in the historic center. This building originally was a hospital and later jail. When it was restored and converted to its current use, the façade and layout of the building was left intact with only minor changes. The museum has six main halls for permanent exhibits and five for temporary ones.

The Culture Palace is a late Neoclassical building which was begun in 1939. It has a brick façade with a woven mat design interspersed with ornamental gray sandstone. It was originally built to be the middle and preparatory school for the state, but later it was converted into a department of the Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala and finally in 1991, housed the Tlaxcala Cultural Institute.

The Stairway of the Heroes was initially called the “Stairway of Independence” both of which refer to the busts of figures such as Miguel Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende, José María Morelos and Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. Busts from persons later in Mexico’s history were added such as those of Francisco I. Madero, Ricardo Flores Magón, Emiliano Zapata, Francisco Villa, Venustiano Carranza as well as Domingo Arenas, who was a Tlaxcalan figure from the Mexican Revolution.

Plaza Xicohténcatl was created in the late 20th century for a weekend arts and crafts market. In the colonial period, the area was used for the sale of slaves according to some historians. Calzada de San Francisco is a pedestrian street at the southeast side of the plaza, filled with ash trees and paved with blocks of sandstone. As the road leads up to the former monastery, it ends at a gate with three arches.

La Chichita is the name of a fountain found at the intersection of Vicente Guerrero and Porfirio Díaz streets. It is fed by a natural water flow and used to be the source of potable water for the surrounding area.

Tizatlán Open Chapel

The Tizatlán Open Chapel was built in the 16th century over a pyramid platform which was part of the palace of Xicohténcatl the Elder. This building appears in the Tlaxcala Codex from 1550. Hernán Cortés placed a cross here along with indigenous leaders Maxixcatzin and Xicohténcatl. There are still fragments of murals depicting the baptism of Jesus, the Three Wise Men and of God, the Father, surrounded by angels playing musical instruments. Adjoining this is the Tizatlán archeological site, in which still remain six semicircular columns, two altars with paintings similar to those of the Borgia Codex, where the gods Tezcatlipoca and Tlahuizcalpantecutli appear.

The Chapel of the Well of the Miraculous Water (Capilla del Pocito de Agua Milagrosa) is a small building at a fresh water spring. It began as a wall built to protect the spring at the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century. The chapel building dates from between 1892 and 1896 but the entrance arch is older. It has an octagonal layout. One of the walls contains an oil by Isauro G. Cervantes from 1913 and the rest of the walls have murals with Biblical scenes related to water done by Desiderio Hernández Xochitiotzin and Pedro Avelino. Traditionally, red pottery ducks are sold in the small atrium as object of devotion or for healing.

The Chapel of San Nicolasito was originally constructed of wood in the 16th century dedicated to Nicholas of Tolentino. In the 19th century the chapel was reconstructed to what is now one of the side chapels. Little by little it was enlarged to its present size.

The San Esteban Temple was constructed from sandstone in the 20th century in Neoclassical style. Its atrium serves as a cemetery and its interior has a mural depicting the baptism of the four indigenous lords of Tlaxcala in the 16th century.

The San Buenaventura Atempan hermitage was constructed around the time that Cortés was building the brigantines to invade Tenochtitlan. At that time, the structure was in a very rural area. Over the centuries it was abandoned and crumbled with only some of the walls remaining. Some of its images and other objects can now be found at a new temple nearby.

Significant communities outside the municipal seat include Ocotlán, San Estebán Tizatlán, San Gabriel Cuauhtla, San Hipólito Chimalpa, San Lucas Cuauhtelupan and Santa Maria Acuitlapilco.

The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Ocotlán in Ocotlan

The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Ocotlán was consecrated in 1854 and in 1905 it was declared the parish church of Ocotlán. In 1907, it was declared a collegiate church and in 1957, it became a minor basilica.

The church is in Tlaxcalan Baroque style characterized by the use of tile and red brick. The façade is built to look like an altarpiece and topped with a seashell image.

The main entrance is an arch flanked by estipite and Salomonic columns with have images of the doctors of the church, as well as the twelve Apostles. Saint Joseph appears in the arch. Above this is a figure representing the Immaculate Conception and Francis of Assisi.

Near this is the choral window in the form of a stylized star. The towers were construction in the latter 18th century with arches and vegetative decoration. The cupola contains four mirrors with the cornice covered in gold leaf.

The ante-sacristy has five oil paintings by Manuel Caro done in 1781 depicting scenes of some of the Virgin Mary’s appearances. The sacristy has a painting of Saint Joseph by Joaquin Magón from 1754. The Guadalupe chapel to the side has lead figures of the Four Evangelists as well as paintings by Miguel Lucas Bedolla and Manuel Yañez. The image of the virgin is in a Baroque chamber decorated in plasterwork by Francisco Miguel Tlayoltehuanitzin between 1715 and 1740 and eight Salomonic columns.

The city celebrates Carnival starting the Friday before Ash Wednesday, with the burning of an effigy to represent “bad humor” accompanied by funeral music. The following day, the queen of the carnival is selected. The main parade with floats occurs on Tuesday. During the long weekend there are various other events such as dance contests and recitals of traditional dace such as that of the Huehues from the community of Acuitlapilco. On Ash Wednesday, ceremonies end with a hanging of an effigy called “La Octava del Carnaval” Often the image is satirical, and of a person considered worthy of criticism.

The Feria de Todos Santos is an important event, dedicated to the agriculture, handcrafts and industry of the state. It also has cultural events such as concerts, art exhibits and dance as well as regional food and an inaugural parade.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Situated in the Mexican Altiplano, Tlaxco lies at an average altitude of 2,540 metres (8,330 ft) above sea level. The western and central parts of the municipality of Tlaxco are relatively flat, while the northern and eastern parts of the municipality feature more rugged terrain.

The highest point in the municipality is the Cerro Peñas Coloradas with an elevation of 3360 metres (11,020 ft) above sea level.

The Zahuapan River and its tributaries drain the central-eastern part of the municipality.

Tlaxco’s climate is temperate sub-humid with the warmest months being March through May.
June through September are the months with the most rain.
Average annual precipitation ranges between 600 and 900 millimetres.

Tlaxco in nahuatl means “place of the ball game”.

Although minor settlements have been found in the Tlaxco area dating back to the Texoloc phase or Middle Formative period, sedentary settlement of the area properly began in the Tezoquipan phase or Late Formative period by proto-Teotihuacan peoples who share elements of the Tezoquipan culture.

From 650 to 850 AD, northern Tlaxcala experienced a period of political instability known as the Acopinalco Complex, during which many different cultural groups competed for control over the area.

By 900 AD a group of Huastec or Otomi people had prevailed, and subsequent cultural homogenization resulted in formation of the Tlaxco culture which would later become associated with the city of Tliliuhquitepec.

Franciscans had arrived in Tlaxco by 1614, which was then part of the municipality of Atlangatepec.
After 1820 Tlaxco began to exist as a separate administrative division of Tlaxcala, with only minor interruptions.

By the end of the 19th century, Tlaxco had become an important centre for the production of pulque.

Porfirio Díaz visited Tlaxco in January 1894 and inaugurated the municipal palace.

The modern municipality of Tlaxco was established on 29 August 1945 with the publication of the Organic Law of Municipalities in the State of Tlaxcala.

In 1956 a highway linking Apizaco and Chignahuapan via Tlaxco was completed.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Xochitecatl is formed from two Nahuatl words, xōchitl (flower) and tecatl (person), hence the person of flowers or the lineage of flowers.

Xochitecatl is located in a dominant position upon the summit of a 4 km-wide extinct volcano that forms a range of hills that rises approximately 200 meters above the floor of the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley; the so-called Atlachino-Nativitas-Xochitecatl block, which is located in the center of the valley.

Xochitecatl has clear views across the surrounding valleys to the neighboring volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, and La Malinche.

The rivers Atoyac and Zahuapan flow close to the site. The site is the focal point of an area distinguished by its high agricultural productivity, sometimes named “the Mesoamerican Mesopotamia”, because of its fertile lands between the rivers Atoyac and Zayapan.

Xochitecatl lies 1 km west of and within sight of, the contemporary Classic Period site of Cacaxtla, distinguished by its famous painted murals in Maya style.

Xochitecatl is located 500m north of the modern town of Xochitecatitla and the same distance to the southeast of Atoyatenco.

Preclassic Period

Around 800 BC, during the Middle Preclassic Period, the construction of Xochitecatl began with the construction of the Pyramid of Flowers, the Spiral Building, and the Serpent Building. In the period from 550 BC to 400 BC, further structures were added to these existing buildings.

By the period spanning 350 BC to 100 AD, Xochitecatl had become the center of a powerful chiefdom exercising control over a large portion of western Tlaxcala.

From 200 BC to 150 BC the Pyramid of Flowers was greatly expanded and further modifications took place at the Serpent Building. The site was abandoned in approximately 150 AD, after an eruption of the Popocatepetl volcano.

Epiclassic (or Late Classic) Period

Between 600 AD and 950 AD Xochitecatl was reoccupied when parts of the site were reused as a secondary ceremonial center within the extended urban area of Cacaxtla. The Platform of the Volcanoes was built and the Pyramid of Flowers became the center of ritual activity including the sacrifice of children. About 950 AD both Xochitecatl and Cacaxtla were abandoned, although there is evidence of continued ritual activity in the Postclassic Period.

Modern history

Major excavations were undertaken at the site in 1993-4 by Mari Carmen Serra Puche with the goal of exploring the principal structures around the site core. In the course of these investigations, two obsidian workshops were uncovered:

• Pyramid of Flowers (Building E1)
• Serpent Building (Building E2)

Site description

The ceremonial center of Xochitecatl lies around two plazas surrounded by the principal structures. Around the main plaza are located the Pyramid of Flowers, the Serpent Building, and the Platform of the Volcanoes. The western plaza is bordered by the Spiral Building.

The Pyramid of Flowers

Pirámide de las Flores in Spanish, designated as Building E1.

This structure was built during the Preclassic Period but shows evidence of use right up to the Spanish Colonial Period. The base of the pyramid measures 100 meters by 140 meters, a similar size to that of the Pyramid of the Moon in Teotihuacan.

Inside were found the burials of more than 30 children and one adult accompanied by offerings. Beads of green stone were deposited in the mouths of some of the children in order to accompany them on their journey to the underworld.

Upon the stairway giving access to the upper part of the building were deposited offerings that included more than 2000 clay figurines and 15 stone sculptures representing both humans and animals.

The distinguishing feature of the figurines is the great number of figures that represent females from infancy right through to old age, including babies, richly dressed women, and pregnant women.

Some figurines represent women with an opening in the abdomen containing richly dressed babies. Others show mothers carrying their children in their arms or upon their backs. The figurines are richly detailed, giving a glimpse of the daily attire in pre-Columbian times.

Some of the women represented are wearing pleated skirts or skirts decorated with geometric designs such as lines, stripes, circles, and dots; some figurines wear blouses (quezquemetl) which are similarly decorated.

Some of the women wear colored bows in their hair while others are adorned with four- or five-petalled flowers.

A stairway ascends the pyramid and before it stands two large monolithic basins, one measuring 1.7 m in diameter.

Four sculptures were found deposited in the larger basin; a sculpture of a toad, a sculpture of a mythological serpent disgorging a human face from its open jaws, and two sculptures of human faces.

During excavations on the Pyramid of Flowers, more than two hundred grey, black, and green obsidian projectile points were recovered, together with hundreds of fragments of the same stone.

More than twenty stone sculptures were also recovered, the majority of which were mutilated; these include animal sculptures such as a canine, an amphibian, and a monkey; there are also anthropomorphic and mythological sculptures, such as a sculpture that represents a fleshless human face with the body of a rattlesnake and has been linked by investigators with local folklore of the goddess Xochitl, who takes the form of a beautiful woman but who can transform into a snake.

Each year on 29 September the sun rises directly from the mouth of the La Malinche volcano, as seen from the summit of the Pyramid of Flowers. This date coincides with the annual festival at nearby San Miguel el Milagro, just under 2 km away to the east.

The Serpent Building

Edificio de la Serpiente in Spanish, designated as Building E2.

This building dates from around 700 BC (in the Preclassic Period) and measures 80 meters by 50 meters. A monolithic stone basin measuring 1.3 meters across and 60 cm high is found on top of the structure.

A mutilated stela was deposited inside, bearing the carving of a snake’s fangs and forked tongue.

To the north of this were found two stone sculptures; one of a man dressed as a jaguar and the other of a man with pronounced forehead and lips holding a scepter or staff in his right hand. A room was built at ground level against the west side of the Serpent Building.

Large amounts of worked obsidian were found in the northeast corner of this building, indicating that it was probably used as a workshop. Items found include cores, stone chippings, knives, projectile points, and scrapers as well as bone tools and antlers.

Associated ceramic remains were used to date these finds to the Late Preclassic (350 BC – 100 AD).

Originally the Serpent Building was a square structure with the only means of access being a stairway on the north side. Later the building was expanded to the east with the addition of another platform.

At the same time, the north stairway was blocked off and a new stairway was built using tepetate covered with mud.

The Spiral Building

Edificio de la Espiral in Spanish, designated as Building E3.
This circular stepped pyramid lies on the western side of the ceremonial center and was built around 700 BC, in the Preclassic Period. Due to its location on the hillside, the western side of the pyramid has more levels than the eastern side.

No trace of internal structures was found during excavation, the interior of the structure consisted of volcanic ash. The building has no stairway giving access to the top, it was climbed by following the spiral form of the building itself.

A Christian cross was placed on top of the structure in 1632 AD, about 90 years after the Spanish Conquest, and remains in place to this day. Two burials were found in the structure, which was probably a temple to Ehecatl, the god of wind.

The Platform of the Volcanoes

Basamento de los Volcanes in Spanish, designated as Building E4.

This structure lies in the middle of the central plaza and is oriented north-south.

The building measures 50 meters along its north-south axis and is 35 meters wide. Construction began in the Middle Preclassic, the building was then reused during the Classic Period, thus producing two phases of architecture.

More than two hundred figurines representing the female form were recovered from this structure during the 1960s by German archaeologist Bodo Spranz. Of particular interest was a figurine representing a flayed female identified as the goddess Tlazolteotl.

The earliest phase of construction, including the east and west stairways, is built from tepetate overlaid with mud. The second phase reused the earlier stone walls, which were then covered with stucco.

As at Teotihuacan, this building deviates 16 degrees from the magnetic north, this is particularly evident with the earlier construction phase. A looted offering consistent with the interment of the remains of human infants was found in the upper part of this platform.

Xochitecatl is in the care of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History) and is open to the public.