Agua Azul waterfalls are a magnificent natural spectacle, as several waterfalls, coming from the river Tujila, splash downwards over different natural terraces, giving you the impression of being only one huge waterfall.

The river carries a lot of earth washed away from the river banks during the rainy season from May to September so the water could be rather brown in these seasons. From October to April the water is really blue.

Agua Azul waterfalls turn into a slower-flowing river, once the currents reach the lowest part of the downfall. Swimming is allowed, but you should take precautions not to get too far, as there might be some undercurrents.

On both sides of the waterfall, you will discover the deep green dense tropical vegetation growing on these somewhat higher grounds called tropical vegetation of altitude, which completes a view of outstanding natural beauty.

You also can walk up a path leading upwards along the waterfall, where you get the most amazing view of the surroundings.

The grounds of the area belong to Mayan community-land owners, who built the roads and walking lanes to and around the waterfall. And they are zealous to preserve all fauna and flora of the surroundings.

If you get hungry you will find a few simple, but clean restaurants with delicious Mayan cuisine, stands with bottled water and sodas, and some stands with Mayan handicrafts on the grounds.

On weekends you will probably find some more visitors on the site as under the week. Yet, as the area is very large, you will find enough space to relax and enjoy your stay.

Agua Azul waterfalls are located between the town of Palenque and the town of Ocosingo, a little further ahead of the Misol Ha waterfall on Federal Highway 199. You could take a shuttle tour to the Misol Ha and the Blue Waterfalls.

Check local tour agencies in San Cristobal de las Casas, Palenque town, and Ocosingo.

Bird Jaguar in the early 5th century fought against K’inich Tatb’u Skull I in Yaxchilan and lost his freedom. Other nobles were captured in a later war against Knot-eye Jaguar I.

In 514, Knot-eye Jaguar I was himself taken captive (by Ruler C of Piedras Negras), giving Bonampak some respite; but after 526, his successor K’inich Tatb’u Skull II attacked Bonampak again and captured more lords.

Bonampak by 600 CE had become a satellite of Yaxchilan. At that time, the ajaw of Yaxchilan installed Yajaw Chan Muwaan I as lord in Bonampak. Subsequent ajawob reconstructed the site to orient toward the metropolis. C. 790 CE, Yaxchilan’s king Shield Jaguar III oversaw the installation of Chan Muwaan II and hired Yaxchilano artisans to commemorate it in “Structure I”‘s murals. Bonampak collapsed with Yaxchilan in the 9th century.

Most of the monuments at the site today were created under Chan Muwan’s rule are physically oriented towards Yaxchilán. Bonampak is famous for the Temple of Murals with three rooms that house the world-famous murals. The turquoise, yellows and rust colors are bright and clear depicting royal life.

Structure 1:

Structure 1 at Bonampak, built at the end of the eighth century A.D. (officially dedicated on November 11, 791 A.D.), measures 16 meters long, four meters deep, and seven meters tall, and is constructed atop a T-shaped platform.

Although there is no evidence to support the claim, some speculate that it may have also had a roof comb, such as can be seen on Structure 33 at nearby Yaxchilan.

Structurally symmetrical, balanced and stable, it is composed of three separate rooms, which contain murals that narrate the events surrounding the accession to the thrown by Chooj, son of Bonampak ruler Yajaw Chaan Muwan, and grandson of Aj Sak Teles.

Although there has been some disagreement as to the temporal sequence of events, it is generally agreed that the narrative should be viewed in chronological order, beginning in Room 1 (scene of tribute, dressing, dance, mummery and musical performance); then on to Room 2 (scene of violent conflict, and a display in which a human cull is presented, tortured and killed in the company of the highest members of court and upper echelons of the victorious force); and, finally, to Room 3 (scene of a dance, with observers, and ritual bloodletting).

In total, there are some 281 human figures represented within the three rooms, many with captions (approximately 1/3 of the figures are named, while another 10 percent of the figures have blank captions, and slightly more than half have no caption at all).

A few theories as to why some captions were left blank include deaths or political realignment, an interruption of the murals related to the ostensible Lowland Maya collapse during the period of Structure 1’s creation, and the possibility that it became politically impolite to name certain figures.

The planning and execution of the Bonampak murals point to a large team of specialists, and not to one solitary genius. This team would have included plasterers, pigment preparers, and possibly calligraphers, in addition to the painters and planners whose artistic conception is most visible on the walls.

The exterior of Structure 1, although poorly preserved, was once richly painted in bright hues of Maya blue, blue-green, red, and yellow. Indeed, almost everything would have been covered in paint, as even the floors in each room were painted black. Only the top surfaces of the interior benches appear to have been left unpainted.

In addition to the various colors applied, there were further artistic elements on the facade of Structure 1. Just below the binder molding, there are remnants of a single band of some eighty glyphs that wrapped around the building, and broad vertical bands of red interchanged with areas of unpainted white stucco. Essentially, the artists at Bonampak framed the lower course of the exterior of Structure 1 as if it were a Maya vase; more specifically (and perhaps more interestingly), this was done in the codex-style vases of the Petén, and not mirroring those of the Usumacinta region where Bonampak is located.

Above each room, there is a small niche housing a seated figure—likely representations of a ruling lord. Between these niches, there were two larger stucco scenes, only one of which has survived the ravages of time. Hinting at what is depicted within on the murals, the image depicts a figure in a forward stride toward a captive on his knees before him, his hair being gripped firmly by his vanquisher. On the east and west sides of the building, the upper course featured additional seated figures within niches set atop long-snouted godheads — these still have some remnants of red paint visible.

Finally, the doorway to each room features a carved lintel of a warrior subduing a captive. Lintel 1 (Room 1) depicts Yajaw Chaan Muwan, ruler of Bonampak, capturing an enemy on January 12, A.D. 787 (Longcount date: 9.17.16.3.12, 8 Eb 10 K’umk’u); Lintel 2 (Room 2) likely shows the overlord from Yaxchilan, Shield Jaguar IV, on January 4, A.D. 787 (Longcount date: 9.17.16.3.8, 4 Lamat 6 K’umk’u); and Lintel 3 (Room 3) displays Aj Sak Teles, probably on July 25, A.D. 780 (Longcount date: 9.17.9.11.14, 3 Ix 2 Yax).

It is worth noting that the height of each doorway is only roughly 5’ 7” (1.75 meters), and around 3 feet wide. Thus, it is clear that no Maya noble in full regalia would have ever entered these rooms without a bow of deferential respect.

In 1996, a team from Yale University led by professor Mary Miller began The Bonampak Documentation Project, which included making an even more detailed study, photographic record, and reproductions of the murals. These reproductions, completed by artists Heather Hurst and Leonard Ashby, bring to life many details, thanks to infrared photographs, that can no longer be seen with the naked eye.

Most saliently, the images captured many glyphs that were previously unknown, lost either to natural erosion or due to the many failed attempts at preservation, some of which did far more damage than conservation.

Note: The numbered human figures (HF) mentioned below can be found in the aforementioned publication on page 73, in addition to excellent large foldouts in the back of the book.

Room 1:

This is the scene of a regal event: the acknowledgment, in front of the court and visiting dignitaries, by the Bonampak ruler, Yajaw Chaan Muwan, of his son’s right to rule.

There are 77 human figures in this first room fulfilling various functions within the narrative. Some of the actors that capture immediate attention are the elegantly costumed figures on the lower register of the south wall (HF’s 62, 63, and 64).

The large, feathered backtracks, in addition to the various jaguar, quetzal and serpent elements in their costumes, underscore the importance of these figures. These are the three ch’oks (young heirs).

It was at first thought that the central figure (HF 63) was the ruler of Bonampak, Yajaw Chaan Muwan. However, further readings of the accompanying glyphs show this figure to be the future ruler, Chooj, who is in between his two brothers: Bird Balam and Aj Balam. With heels raised, all three brothers are in the middle of a ritual dance.

To the viewer’s left of HF 62, beginning on the south wall and leading to the east wall, there are several figures playing instruments (rattles, drums, and turtle shells) and singing, which fill this room with celebratory music.

To the viewer’s right of the three ch’oks, leading to the west wall, there are eight sajals (regional governors).

Of particular note is HF 71, standing in a familiar pose to smokers of today, as he, too, embraces a long, thin cigarette, expressing some combination of calm, lack of interest and boredom.

Behind him, HF’s 73 and 74, as well as HF’s 52 and 54 on the east wall work together, holding parasols that frame the Initial Series Text right above them on the middle register. These are the only quotation marks in all of the Pre-Columbian New World.

On the lower register of the north wall, still more musicians (HF’s 43 and 44) blast their trumpets, while other performers (HF’s 45-50) wear various costumes, including that of a crocodile (HF 48).

Of all the images of visiting messengers, nobles and dancers held within the upper register, a few individuals, and one recently discovered detail, in particular, stand out. Conspicuously placed upon a raised platform on the upper register of the south wall, just above two holes where wooden beams had once run through to help support the structure, stands a lone figure (HF 16) presenting a child (HF 15) to the lords.

At first, many thought that this child was the young heir; however, as noted previously, the central dancing figure below (HF 63) was the heir to the throne at Bonampak. Yet, even without having decoded the glyphs next to the three festive brothers, one notices a couple of peculiarities.

Firstly, the young figure is actually wearing face paint and garments that are suggestive of a girl, perhaps a wife for the future ruler.

Secondly, no one is looking at the child, not even the individual holding her. In fact, he is glancing over his left shoulder into the upper register of the west wall at the figure (HF 19) sitting upon an elevated throne. This seated figure is likely Yajaw Chaan Muwan, ruler of Bonampak.

It is important to mention here that the caption above this individual, like so many captions in Structure 1, was left blank. Therefore, the identification of HF 19 as Yajaw Chaan Muwan is deduced rather than known unequivocally based on a name glyph.

Beneath the throne, one can view five bundles, albeit with some difficulty. It was not until Professor Mary Miller’s aforementioned Bonampak Documentation Project that scholars finally knew what these bundles contained.

After analyzing infrared images of this scene, glyphs for “5 pi kakaw” were revealed. “Kakaw” was the classic Maya term for the cacao bean, and Harvard University professor David Stuart has suggested that the “pi” glyph represents units of 8,000 beans.

Therefore, if this is so, it appears that there has been a tribute payment to Yajaw Chaan Muwan of 40,000 cacao beans, which is a considerable sum of wealth.

Finally, in the vault across the whole scene in Room 1, the faces of the Sun God are shown as it moves across the sky.

On the east wall, a large crocodilian, representing the vault of the sky, carries the myriad avatars of the Sun God upon its back.

Room 2:

This is the scene of what has been referred to as the greatest battle scene in all of Maya art. Room 2 is the largest of the three, which alludes to its greater importance. It also contains more human figures than either Room 1 or Room 2, with 139 of them. The south wall, which is the first that is viewed upon entering, along with the east and the west walls, depict warriors in the heat of battle. Bodies are intertwined on both the lower and the upper registers. Trumpets blast as the battle rages on (HF 7). As one begins to focus more and more on the individuals, a couple of artistic elements and their symbolic meanings become clear. The ancient Maya believed that to be left-handed was a sign of femininity and weakness, thus the warriors who are shown as defeated—including already being stripped nude, with the victors gripping them by the hair—or those in the process of being defeated, are depicted as being left-handed (e.g., HF’s 61 and 67). Some are even illustrated with two left hands. To contrast this sharply, several victors are given two right hands, doubling their strength and masculinity. In addition to left-handedness, the losers are also all wearing some element of a bird—or, at least those that are still in their battle costumes, and have not yet been stripped of them. This is also indicative of defeat. The victors, on the other hand, all wear costumes with feline elements—specifically, the jaguar. Therefore, it is of no surprise to see the main character on the upper register of the south wall, Yajaw Chan Muwaan (HF 55), firmly gripping a jaguar skin-covered spear in his right hand while donning a large, extravagant jaguar headdress—which may contain a water-lily scroll—and wearing a jaguar jerkin and jaguar boots. Although it is clear that the events surrounding the ascension to the thrown of Chooj depicted in Structure 1 are narrating actual events, it is equally clear that Bonampak’s version of the actual events is more propagandistic in nature. The aforementioned outfits of the losers underscore this fact. That is, no one intending to win would enter battle wearing costumes related to defeating, nor would all of the warriors of the losing side be left-handed. Professor Mary Miller describes the battle scene of Room 2 as an “…official historical portraiture, not by any means a photographic glimpse of Maya warfare”. Above the chaotic battle, the south vault depicts three individuals within ancestor centipede cartouches. Between them are two bound captives. As one turns to view the north wall, the viewer is greeted by the sequel to the battle: torture and sacrifice of the captives taken in battle.

To view the north wall, a visitor would have sat on the south bench above bound captives, as though becoming a part of the scene. The north wall is one of pain and suffering. Nude and almost nude captives (only wearing a loincloth) are depicted in deep agony, as some of them are in the process of getting their fingernails ripped off, or have already undergone this torture and bleed from their wounds (HF’s 101-109). HF 101 may have even had his teeth removed, while HF 106 has already expired, and HF 120 is only a severed head. Yajaw Chan Muwaan is the main figure here, too, wearing only a slightly different variant of his battle costume from the south wall. He stands stately over his captives, while several warriors and nobles observe the ritual, including his wife (HF 97). In the vault, directly above this scene, are four cartouches representing various celestial imagery.

Note: During a radar survey of Structure 1 in 2010, archaeologists discovered a tomb beneath Room 2. It is small and relatively simple. It contained the body of one man between the ages of 35 and 42. It was a complete skeleton, minus the cranium, which scientists believe is simply due to natural erosion, and not evidence of beheading. The skeleton was accompanied by jade earrings, a jade necklace and bracelets, a spondylus shell pendant, two polychrome plates, an alabaster vase with a hole in the base, and a stone knife. The last two items—perforated vase and a stone knife—lead some to believe that this individual was one of the sacrifice victims depicted in Room 2. Other theories include him being a wounded warrior or a possible relative of Yajaw Chan Muwaan, as his jewelry matched that of the nobles depicted in Room 1. Interestingly, it is clear that this tomb was part of the original construction of Structure 1 and was not, therefore, created at a later date.

Room 3:

This is the scene of ritual celebration for victory in battle, including bloodletting by nobles, and contains 65 human figures. As with Rooms 1 and 2, the south wall is the first to be viewed. What captures one’s attention immediately are the three elaborately dressed individuals in the upper register (HF’s 16, 21, and 24) wearing tall, green, quetzal-feathered headdresses and dancers’ wings. These are the same brothers from Room 1, with the young heir, Chooj, in the center (HF 21). Each brother holds a bloody femur bone that has been modified into a ritual ax. Right below Chooj is another figure (HF 22) on his knees; he is also holding an ax in his right hand and another object in his left. Here is another instance where the Bonampak Documentation Project was able to decipher that which is not able to be seen by the naked eye—in this instance, the paint had been completely eroded in this area. However, the infrared images revealed that what HF 22 had in his left hand was none other than the still-beating heart of the sacrificial victim below (HF 19), who is being dragged down the pyramid steps by two attendants (HF’s 18 and 20).

Covering almost the entire bottom register of the south and west walls are seven more elaborately costumed characters (HF’s 13, 15, 17, 26, 26, 27 and 28) with similar headdresses to those of the brothers above them. They are depicted with one heel raised and arms stretched out as if captured right before a spinning dance, perhaps to imitate the flight of the quetzal. Above the entire south wall scene, set amongst a background of yellow—the first appearance of a color not representing reality — is a supernatural entity with square eyes, and a single frontal pointed tooth. It lacks pupils and a real nose; behind it emerge two serpent-like supernatural entities that expel additional entities. The upper register of the west wall contains a musical procession with masked performers, carrying a dwarf (HF 42) who is lifted into the yellow background of the vault, demonstrating his connection to the supernatural world. The upper register of the east wall shows the noble women of Bonampak (HF’s 2, 5 and 6) holding stingray spines to their tongues in a bloodletting ritual. Meanwhile, a large man (HF 7) offers bloodletting supplies to the women on the throne. Of note is the fact that these individuals also seem to appear previously—HF 7 in Room 2 on the middle of the east wall; the others in Room 1 on the west wall throne scene. Above them, surrounded by yellow, another supernatural entity appears to spew blood. Turning to the north wall, one can see an almost identical supernatural in the vault as that of the south wall vault. Below, 10 ebeets (lords) dressed in white mantles engage in conversation, while nine more seated individuals below also gesticulate as they talk to one another, perhaps commenting on the performance taking place on the south wall in front of them. Finally, on the bottom register, more musicians raise their instruments skyward as part of the procession on the west wall. Room 3 engulfs the viewer in the celebration.

Professor Mary Miller wrote, “Perhaps no single artifact from the ancient New World offers as complex a view of Prehispanic society as do the Bonampak paintings. No other work features so many Maya engaged in the life of the court and rendered in such great detail, making the Bonampak murals an unparalleled resource for an understanding ancient society.”

From the town of Palenque by bus and taxi (almost 3 hours) $27-$45.
Also is possible to reserve a tour with a transfer with a local travel agency.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The municipality consists of rolling hills which alternate with flat areas, mostly along rivers and streams. Most of the territory is in the Central Valley region but in the northwest, it transitions into the Central Highlands. The main rivers include the Grijalva, also called the Grande de Chiapa and the Santo Domingo. Streams include El Chiquito, Majular, Nandaburé and Nandalumí. The climate is hot and relatively humid with most rain falling from July to November. The annual average temperature in the city is 26C with an annual rainfall of 990mm.

The natural vegetation of the area is lowland rainforest with pine-oak forests in the extreme north. However, much of these forests have been overexploited with the loss of wildlife. Wildlife includes river crocodiles, coral snakes, heloderma, iguanas, opossums and skunks. Part of the Sumidero Canyon National Park is in the municipality. The El Chorreadero is a state park located in the municipality centered on the waterfall of the same name. It has an area of 100 hectares with lowland rainforest and secondary vegetation. The Grijalva River extends twenty three km from the city to the Chicoasén Dam, formally known as the Ing. Manuel Moreno Torres, one of the largest in Latin America. Boats touring the canyon leave from the Cahuaré Docks.

Historically, the dominant indigenous ethnicity has been the Zoques and there are still Zoque communities in the municipality. As of 2005, there were 2,899 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total of over 60,000.

The region has been inhabited at least since the Archaic period of Mesoamerican history. The immediate area of the municipality was settled around 1200 BCE by a group of people related to the Olmec culture, who are thought to have been speakers of an early Mixe–Zoquean language. However, the exact relationship between Chiapa de Corzo and the Olmec world has not been definitively established. By 900 or 800 BCE, the village, now archeological site, show a strong relationship with the Olmec center of La Venta, but it is unknown if Chiapa was ruled by La Venta or not. However, much the settlement shared many features with La Venta, including a ceremonial pond and pottery styles as well as using the same sources for materials such as obsidian and andesite.

The Chiapa site is important because it shows a Mixe–Zoque–Olmec culture which eventually split from the Olmec. The development of the ancient city has been divided into a number of phases. The earliest and most important are the Escalera or Chiapa III (700-500BCE) and Francesa or Chiapa IV (500BCE to 100CE) phase. Olmec influence is strongest in the Escalera phase when it became a planned town with formal plazas and monumental buildings. However, contacts with Mayan areas is evident as well. However, even during this phase, there are significant differences in architecture and pottery which suggest a distinct Zoque identity from the Mixe–Zoque/Olmec cultural base. The distinction grew in the Francesca period as monumental structures were enlarged and pottery was almost all locally made. There is also evidence of participation in long distance trade networks, and the first examples of hieroglyphic writing appear. The earliest Long Count inscription in Mesoamerica derives from this phase, with a date of 36 BCE appearing on Stela 2. At its height, was an independent city on major trade routes. It may have been a major influence for the later Maya civilization as the pyramids in Chiapa are very similar to the E group pyramids found in most of Mesoamerica. The following Horcones phase and Istmo phase to 400 CE show more elaborate tomb construction and craft specialization. By the end of these phases, however, craft activity diminishes and long distance ties contracted even though tombs remain elaborate. The final centuries are associated with the Jiquipilas phase around 400 CE. It is not known what brought down the civilization, but the city became gradually abandoned and appears to have become a pilgrimage site, perhaps by Zoque who had been conquered by the Chiapa people.

Whether the Chiapa actually conquered the Zoque city or whether it had fallen before their arrival, the newcomers decided to occupy the adjacent floodplain of the Grijalva River, where the modern town is, and leave the old ruins untouched. By the early 16th century, this town had become a local power center called Napinaica. The Chiapa people were distinct from others in Chiapas in size, nudity, and fierceness which impressed the Spanish who noted it in their writings. These people were fiercely opposed to Spanish intrusion and were a major obstacle to the first efforts by the conquistadors to dominate. However, in 1528, Diego de Mazariegos succeeded in breaking this resistance by enlisting the help of neighboring peoples who were enemies of the Chiapa. The last Chiapa leader, named Sanguieme, tried to help his people escape the domination of the Spanish but, according to historian Jean de Vos, he was captured and burned alive in a hammock strung between two kapok trees, with a hundred of his followers hung from trees near the river.

After the conquest, the town was refounded with the name of Villa Real de Chiapa by a large kapok tree called La Pochota as the first European city in Chiapas. However, the hot climate of the area did not entice many Spanish to stay. Most instead went to the northeast into the cooler mountains to found another city, today San Cristobal. The mountain city would be founded as Chiapa de los Españoles, while Villa Real de Chiapa would become known Chiapa de los Indios, left to the indigenous and monks there to evangelize them. Despite this, the city would remain one of the most important for the first 200 years of colonization. While it was an encomienda at first, it became a dependency of the Spanish Crown in 1552, changing its name to Pueblo de la Real Corona de Chiapa de Indios. The developers of the area were Dominican friars, who followed the ideals of Bartolomé de las Casas in neighboring San Cristobal. They worked to protect the indigenous against the abuses of the Spanish colonizers, allowing them to gain the trust of the local people and convert them to Christianity. They also taught the local indigenous crafts such as European pottery methods, fireworks making and rope making. The Dominicans also built many of the landmarks of the town such as the La Pila fountain. This protection and the very high percentage of indigenous population in the colonial period allowed for many indigenous names to survive to the present day. Along with surnames such as Grajales, Castellanos, Marino Hernández, there is Nandayapa, Tawa, Nuriulú, Nampulá and Nangusé among others.

In 1849, the city was declared the seat of its district. The town was officially declared a city in 1851. “de Corzo” was added to the name in 1881 in honor of Liberal politician Angel Albino Corzo. In 1863, there was a battle between the French and the Liberals, with the latter led by Salvador Urbina.

Between 1970 and 1979, the construction of the Chicoasén Dam caused tremblers in the area. One of these toppled the large bell in the main church. The main highway that connects the city with San Cristóbal was built in 2000. During this same year, the first non PRI municipal president was elected, from the National Action Party.

The town is located along the Grijalva River and has one of the main docks along this waterway. The town is laid out in Spanish style, centered on a very large plaza which the municipality claims is larger than the Zocalo, or main plaza of Mexico City. (sec.

This plaza has a number of important features. The largest and best known is the La Pila fountain. This was constructed in 1562 in Moorish style, made of brick in the form of a diamond. The structure is attributed to Dominican brother Rodrigo de León. It measures fifty two meters in circumference and twelve meters in height. It has eight arches and a cylindrical tower which occasionally functioned as a watchtower. Another important feature is the La Pochota kapok tree.

According to tradition, the Spanish town was founded around this tree. The last feature is a clock tower which was constructed in the 1950s. The town’s main structures are centered on this plaza, including the municipal palace and the former home of Liberal governor Angel Albino Corzo, for whom the town is partially named. One side of the plaza is taken by the “portales” a series of arches initially built in the 18th century, which contain a number of businesses. Unlike many towns, the main church does not face this plaza. It is set back from it about a block.

The Santo Domingo church and former monastery is the largest structure in the town, set on a small hill overlooking the river.(sectorchiapas) It is locally known as the “Iglesia Grande” or Big Church. The structure was built in the second half of the 16th century and attributed to Pedro de Barrientos and Juan Alonso. The church is one of the best preserved from the 16th century in Chiapas. It has three naves, a coffered ceiling and cupolas above the presbytery and intersection. It is based on the Moorish churches of the Seville region in Spain, but it also has Gothic, Renaissance and Neoclassical influences. Its main bell tower has the largest bells in the country. The main altar of the church is only about two decades old and made of cedar, designed in Puebla. The entire piece is supposed to be gilded but so far only a small area in the upper part has had this treatment. The gold used here is 24 carat from Italy and measures two meters by eighty centimeters. The work cost 150,000 pesos, which was collected through raffles and donations for the project. To finish the work, another half a million pesos is needed. Other images in the church include an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe, Saint Joseph, the Archangel Michael, Saint Dominic and Saint Sebastian. The church complex is partially maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH).

To the side of the Big Church is the former Dominican monastery. This structure has been restored to house exhibition halls, including those associated with the Museo de la Laca (Lacquer Museum). The most important craft in the municipality is the working of wood, often with these pieces glazed in lacquer. One item is the masks used for traditional dances such as Parachicos. Another is the popular musical instrument the marimba. Lacquer is used on wooden items and other things such as gourds. It is decorative, often with intricate designs. This craft is locally called “laca.”

Other important churches in the town include the Calvario and the San Sebastian. The Calvario Church is from the 17th century. It was remodeled in Gothic Revival architecture at the beginning of the 19th century. Its interior conserves a wooden relief which was part of the Santo Domingo Church. San Sebastian is a church in ruins located on the San Gregorio hill. It was constructed in the 17th century when the city was at its height. It had three naves separated by archways. However, only its apse and facade remain with elements of Moorish, Renaissance and Baroque elements.

One of the main tourist attractions for the municipality is the Sumidero Canyon, with the municipal docks on the Grijalva River mostly serving tour boats into the National Park up to the La Angostura Dam. Most commerce is small stores and commercial centers for local needs and some for tourism.

While there is evidence of human occupation in the region from at least the Archaic period the main archeological site for the area is near the modern town of Chiapa de Corzo. This archeological site is located 2 kilometers away from Grijalva River. The origin of this ceremonial and administrative center goes back 3,500 years, being a strategic point in commercial routes between the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico coasts . It was one of the largest settlements in early Mesoamerica occupied from 1200 BCE to 600 CE. This site had been occupied from at least 1400 BCE until sometime in the late Classic period. The site reached its height between 700 BCE to 200 CE, when it was a large settlement along major trade routes.

The site is important for a number of reasons. First, while it was definitely inhabited by Mixe-Zoque speakers, it has strong ties to the Olmecs, but it is not known what exactly theses ties were. Some theories state that the population was genetically related to the Olmecs, while others suppose that they were dominated by the Olmecs initially but then eventually broke away. There have been significant finds here such as the oldest Mesoamerican Long Count calendar with the date of 36 BCE on a monument, as well as a pottery shard with the oldest instance of writing system yet discovered.

A recent discovery has been the oldest pre Hispanic tomb, dated to between 700 and 500 BCE. It was found in a previously excavated 20-meter-tall pyramid, but in the very center. The occupant is richly attired with more than twenty axes found as offerings, placed in the cardinal directions. The culture is considered to be Olmec although more exact dating needs to be done. The offerings show Olmec influence, such as depictions of wide eyes and lips, but other typical Olmec decorations such as earspools and breastplates are missing. In addition to the axes, there are also more than three thousand pieces made of jade, river pearls, obsidian and amber, from areas as far away as Guatemala and the Valley of Mexico, showing trade networks. The face was covered in a seashell with eye and mouth openings, the earliest example of a funeral mask. The burial shows that many elements of Mesoamerican burials are older than previously thought.

The archeological site lies just outside the urban sprawl of modern Chiapa de Corzo, but the city is growing over it and many areas known to contains ruins underground are encroached upon by modern homes and businesses. The discovery of the ancient tomb has prompted the Mexican government to buy more lands and extend the site by 7,200 square meters to one and a half hectares. Part of the site has been open to tourism since late 2009.

Throughout the municipality, festivals, music and cuisine are similar. The Festival of the Señor de El Calvario is a social and religious event which occurs on 7 October. It honors an image of Christ with masses, popular dances, fireworks and amusement rides along with cultural and sporting events.

The Fiesta Grande is celebrated from 15 to 23 January and it is the most important for the year.

The marimba is the most often heard instrument at festivals and parties.

The Fiesta Grande de Enero

The Fiesta Grande de Enero (Great January Feast) takes place from 4 to 23 January every year in Chiapa de Corzo, to honor local patron saints Our Lord of Esquipulas, Anthony the Great and Saint Sebastian. The festival has been included in UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists on November 16, 2010, listed as “Parachicos in the traditional January feast of Chiapa de Corzo”. Since then, the event has experienced a surge in interest, making the Dance of the Parachicos the highlight. However, this has not assured the survival of the event or of the Parachicos dancers. There are fewer dancers than in the past, and many of the younger generation are not interested in the time it takes to carve a traditional mask from wood then lacquer it.

The Fiesta Grande de Enero is a celebration which joins a number of events which all happen in the month of January. Originally, these were the feast days of patron saints and other figures, including a Christ figure called the Our Lord of Esquipulas, Anthony the Great and Saint Sebastian. Since then, it has developed to include other events and overall it is meant to give thanks for what has been received over the past year. On 8 January, the Fiesta Grande is announced and the first of the dances, by dancers called “Chuntas,” is performed. The feast day of the Our Lord of Esquipulas is on January 15, who is honored where he is kept at the Señor de Milagros Church. On 16 January the festival of Saint Sebastian is announced. 17 January is dedicated to San Antonio Abad with a parade of Parachicos. On 18 January, the Parachicos visit the graves of deceased patrons. On 19 January the festival of Saint Sebastian is announced. The 20th is dedicated to this saint as well, with activities starting early and foods such as pepita con tasajo to the public. On the 21 of January a naval battle takes place on the Grijalva River, which consists of a spectacle using thousands of fireworks. This tradition began in 1599, when Pedro de Barrientos, vicar of the Santo Domingo Church, encouraged the development of fireworks making. He came up with the naval battle idea as a diversion and over time it became a way to fascinate visitors. Today, the battle is a recreation of the Battle of Puerto Arturo which occurred on 21 January 1906, by a group of local firework makers. On 22 January, there is a parade with floats. This day is marked with confetti and mariachis along with various types of dancers. The last day, the 23rd is marked by a parade of dancers. Then there is a mass. During these last hours, the drums and flutes play a melancholy tune as the fireworks ends and the streets quiet. The Parachicos cry during their mass as the festival ends. The traditional food during this time is pork with rice and pepita con tasajo.

Although the Parachicos are the best known and recognized of the dancers, there are actually three types. All refer back to a story that takes place in the colonial era. According to legend, Doña María de Angula was a rich Spanish woman who traveled in search of a cure for a mysterious paralytic illness suffered by her son, which no doctor could cure. When she arrived here, she was directed to a curandero, or local healer called a namandiyuguá. After examining the boy, he instructed his mother to bathe him in the waters of a small lake called Cumbujuya, after which he was miraculously cured. To distract and amuse the boy, a local group disguised themselves as Spaniards with masks and began to dance showing “para el chico” which means “for the boy.” According to one version of the story, this is what cured the child. The tradition of these dancers began in 1711, leading the Spanish to call the event “para el chico”, which eventually evolved into Parachicos.

The term is also used to refer to the best known of the dancers of the Fiesta Grande. The Parachicos dress in a mask, a helmet or wig made of ixtle, a Saltillo style sarape. The mask is carved of wood and decorated with lacquer to mimic a Spanish face. Originally the masks had beards, but over time they evolved and many have an almost childlike look. The ixtle head covering is supposed to mimic blonde hair. The dancers carry a type of maraca made of metal called chinchin to make noise along with the taping of their boot heels. These carry a guitar and/or whip (the latter used by encomenderos in the colonial period). The dancers use the whips to lightly tap children, youths, old men and even some women. These dancers appear a number of times during the days of the Fiesta Grande. These processions visit the various churches on their path, which are decorated with branches, on which are hung breads, sweets, fruits and plastic decorations.

Accompanying the Parachicos or dancing on their own is another type of dancer called “chuntas.” These are men dressed as women as the word chunta means maid or servant. These figures represent the “servants” of Doña María. Most of the men dress in shirts and long skirts. The two types of dancers appear on several occasions during the days of the festival dancing and marching to pipes, drums and other instruments. The dance reenancts the search for relief from a pain and suffering, including hunger. The dancers distribute food and small gifts for this reason. The route is lined by spectators who hope to receive some of the gifts that the dancers distribute.

The “patron” of the dances and processions has been the Nigenda family for about seventy years, whose house at 10 Alvaro Obregon Avenue becomes the meeting point for the dancers during the festival. At the back of the patio of this house, there is an altar which the portraits of two deceased members of the family Atilano Negenda and Arsenio Nigenda. The latter ceded the charge of the dance to the current patron, Guadalupe Rubicel Gomez Nigenda in 1999. The Parachicos dress in their costumes at the patron’s house, then they pray as a group. First the musicians exit playing flutes, drums and whistles. At a signal, the hundreds of Parachicos begin dancing and shouting. At the end of the parade is the patron, Rubisel Nigenda, who is accompanying by a “Chulita” a young woman who does not wear a mask, but rather an old fashioned traditional Chiapan dress, with a long skirt, embroidered shirt and roses. She represents the women of Chiapas. They are followed by people carrying flags representing various saints. In the middle of these is the flag of the city’s patron saint and “king” of the festival, Saint Sebastian.

The main dishes include stews with potatoes and squash seeds, pork with rice and tamales. Cochito is pork cooked in an adobo sauce. It is popular throughout the state but important in Chiapa de Corzo for the Comida Grande which is served during the Festival of San Sebastian in January. Another is a beef dish where the meat is dried then fried then served with a sauce made from squash seeds, green tomatoes and achiote. Typical sweets are also made with squash seeds. A typical cold drink is pozol.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The site shows evidence of continual occupation since the Early Formative period (ca. 1200 BCE).

The mounds and plazas at the site, however, date to approximately 700 BCE with temples and palaces constructed at the end of the Late Formative or Protoclassic period, between 100 BCE and 200 CE.

In 2008, archaeologists discovered a massive Middle Formative Olmec axe deposit at the base of Chiapa de Corzo’s Mound 11 pyramid. This deposit dates to around 700 BCE and is the second one of its kind found in Chiapas after nearby San Isidro. It is associated with one of the earliest E-Group astronomical complexes in Mesoamerica.

In April 2010, archaeologists discovered the 2,700-year-old tomb of a dignitary within Mound 11 that is the oldest pyramidal tomb yet discovered in Mesoamerica.

According to archaeologist Bruce Bachand, the tomb exhibits Olmec rather than Maya affinities. This tomb predates by 600 years any other such tomb found in Mesoamerica, such as those at Tikal, and at Kaminaljuyu.

The site is believed to have been settled by Mixe–Zoquean speakers, bearers of the Olmec culture that populated the Gulf and Pacific Coasts of southern Mexico.

Chiapa de Corzo and a half dozen other western Depression centers appear to have coalesced into a distinct Zoque civilization by 700 BCE, an archaeological culture that became the conduit between late Gulf Olmec society and the early Maya. Certain Mesoamerican traits such as planned cities, earthen pyramids, E-Group commemorative complexes, cloudy-resist waxy pottery, incensarios, and early logographic writing may have originated in the Zoque region.

Starting around 100 BCE, during its Guanacaste phase, Chiapa de Corzo played the role of the regional capital. The city was linked with other areas across the Maya Lowlands, Maya Highlands, Pacific Coast, and Oaxaca. This is the time when the first hieroglyphic writing appeared on flat stamps, pottery vessels, stelae, and building panels.

Maya pottery types began to be included in elite burials, although utilitarian ceramics retained traditional patterns. This has suggested to some researchers, that the Maya culture to the east exerted influence or even control over Chiapa de Corzo, although there seems to be a waning of that Maya influence in the first centuries CE. It was during this time that the ancient platform mounds were covered with limestone and stucco.

Big changes occurred in the area during the Istmo phase (AD 300-400). There was an economic decline, as craft activity diminished and long-distance ties contracted.

Chiapa de Corzo and a number of western Depression sites were abandoned by the Late Classic period, a population change that closely coincides with the invasion of a war like group of Manguean-speaking people known as the Chiapanec.

The Chiapanec chose to occupy the adjacent floodplain of the Grijalva River where the modern town is now located, and they left the Zoque ruin on the nearby plateau untouched. The abandoned city now became a place of pilgrimage.

The site has been heavily encroached upon over the last 70 years with the construction of roads, homes, businesses, utility systems, and a cemetery. The Nestlé company constructed a large milk processing plant in the center of the ruin in the late 1960s, removing Mound 17, one of the major ceremonial mounds at the site. In recent years, the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) has purchased sections of the site from local land owners. INAH officially opened a small portion of the ruin to tourists on December 8, 2009. The site is currently under investigation by a collaborative team of researchers from Brigham Young University, INAH-Chiapas, and Mexico’s UNAM (see http://chiapadecorzo.byu.edu).

The oldest Mesoamerican Long Count calendar date yet discovered, December 36 BCE, was found on Stela 2 (which is not a stela at all, but rather a misnamed, inscribed wall panel). All that survives of the original text is the day-name and the digits 7.16.3.2.13.

Chiapa de Corzo is also notable for a pottery sherd containing what is likely Epi-Olmec script. Dated to as early as 300 BCE, this sherd would be the oldest instance of that writing system yet discovered.

The site possesses possibly the earliest example of a Mesoamerican palace complex in Mound 5. This palace was constructed in the first century CE and ritually destroyed a couple centuries later.

More than 250 Formative period burials have been scientifically excavated at Chiapa de Corzo. Many derive from a unique Late Formative burial ground below the Mound 1 plaza. Chiapa de Corzo has the largest and perhaps the best chronologically subdivided Formative period burial sample in southern Mesoamerica.

Chiapa de Corzo has more clay cylinder seals and flat stamps than any other Formative Mesoamerican site, save Tlatilco. Hieroglyphs appear on examples made around 100 BCE.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Most of the sculptures were produced in the last 300 years of this era, with hieroglyphic inscriptions dating from 591 to 897. Post-Classic-Era occupation of the site continued until the 13th century, after which it was abandoned.

The site has some step-pyramids and some 200 smaller buildings, most in undisturbed ruin. Chinkultic has carved stone stelae depicting the site’s rulers. The site contains a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, which a marker tells us was dedicated on 21 May 591.

The first published account of the site was made by Edward Seler in the late 19th century. A detailed description of the site was made by Enrique Juan Palacios in 1926.

The first archeological investigations of the site were conducted in 1966 under the direction of Stephan F. de Borhegyi of the Public Museum of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Starting in 1970, some further excavations and restorations of a few buildings was conducted by Mexican government archeologists, who also dredged some artifacts from the site’s cenote or natural well known as Agua Azul (“Blue Water”). The cenote gives the site its Maya language name; Chinkultic meaning “stepped-cenote”.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Tourists in Comitán can see many ecotourism sights:

• Lagos de Montebello which are beautiful lakes complete with cabins and tour guides for those who want them
• El Chiflon which is a series of waterfalls (this costs a few pesos to enter)
• Tenam Puente is an archeological Mayan Cultural place

and much more…

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Beyond its natural beauty, Lagunas de Montebello is home to the Maya ruins of Chinkultic, a fascinating pre-Columbian city. Dating back to the third century, Chinkultic was a thriving center until its abandonment in the 13th century.

Visitors can explore nearly 200 structures, including several pyramids and a unique ball court. The site offers panoramic views of the multi-colored lakes from the top of the Acropolis. Carved stelae depict rulers of Chinkultic, adding historical depth to the park’s allure.

The park’s 6,411 hectares encompass a rich variety of flora and fauna. The forests are home to towering pines, oaks, and liquidambar trees, adorned with epiphytes that create stunning hanging gardens.

Wildlife includes amphibians like frogs and salamanders, reptiles like turtles and snakes, and mammals such as white-tailed deer, armadillos, and the elusive jaguar. Birdwatchers can spot migratory and native birds like the quetzal and wild ducks.

Lagunas de Montebello offers numerous activities for visitors. Popular options include:

• Hiking through the park’s forest trails
• Camping amidst serene natural surroundings
• Kayaking and rafting on the lakes
• Horseback riding to explore remote areas of the park

The park also provides basic services, including restaurants and guided tours. For an authentic experience, visitors can take a traditional raft ride on Lago Pojoj or camp under the stars.

Costs and Practical Information:

• Park entrance: 35 MXN
• Ejido access fee: 25 MXN per person
• Camping: 80 MXN per person
• Raft rental: 180 MXN (high season), 80 MXN (low season)
• Kayak rental: 180 MXN (high season), 100 MXN (low season)
• Restaurant meals: 80-150 MXN

For accurate information about current park fees, seasonal variations, and services, it’s recommended to check official websites. The nearest city is Comitán, an hour’s drive away, while San Cristóbal de las Casas is two hours further west.

Whether you’re looking for a peaceful nature retreat, an adventure on the lakes, or an exploration of ancient Maya history, Lagunas de Montebello National Park offers an unforgettable experience.

Mapastepec city, is located south of Chiapas, it has an area of 1085.6 km ², which represents 1.44% of the state, its boundaries are: west, northwest and north by the municipality of Pijijiapan, La Concordia, on the north and northwest, with Angel Albino Corzo, on the east Siltepec, with Motozintla southeast, with the Acacoyagua and Acapetahua south and the Pacific Ocean to the south, southwest and west.

The latitude of the municipal cabecar is 32 m, the average altitude of the municipality is 46 meters

The municipality covers an area of 1085 km².

Mapastepec, like other coastal towns, stretching from the edge of the Pacific Ocean, with its marshes, lakes and swamps to the peaks of the Sierra Madre which covers much of the ecological reserve known as El Triunfo that has a forest of fog holder of the tallest trees in the country and several unique plant species rarity and beauty. The area of the municipality may be distributed as follows: 35% is mountainous terrain, 20% plains, 30% hills, 5% to rough terrain and 10% wetlands. Alluvial soils predominate deep profiles and silt-sandy texture.

Altitudes of temperate and wet down the rivers of the area governing the municipality, among the most important may be considered the Novillero, San Nicolas and Sesecapa. Its waters are used primarily for human service, the livestock and agriculture.

Climate

It is considered hot and humid from January to September and as Coastal from October to December, its average annual temperature is 26.5 degrees Celsius, the average annual rainfall of 1783 mm, with the heaviest rainfall from June to September.

Flora

The vegetation at this high jungle town on the coast and oak-pine forest in the mountains. Can still be found species of hardwoods such as cedar, spring, hormiguillo, Guanacaste, oak and tepemixtle. Among the fruit we scored avocados, mamey, mango, custard apple, soursop, papausa, cuajinicuil and caspirol, among others.

The vegetation is common in tropical climates, for example three plant communities: the high evergreen forest with species like the hormiguillo (Cordia alliodora), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), ceiba or kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra), Guanacaste (Enterolo blum ciclocarpun), cinnamon (Calycophyllum), guava flying (Terminalia oblonga).

Fauna

In the high mountains can be found to what is considered as the representative of the state bird: the peacock, unfortunately in danger of extinction. Also include: Pava, seven cars, hummingbirds, harpy eagle, hawk, parrot, owl, skylark, chupamiel, mockingbird, rook, buzzard, pigeons, doves, Yellow-throated toucans and a variety of beautiful birds such as the Quetzal. Spider monkey, porcupine, anteater, skunk, deer, puma, jaguar, bobcat, agouti, wild boar, tapir, opossums, rabbits, boa, rattlesnake, coral, false coral, nahuyaca, Chichicua, steep and lots of insects . In the coastal region there are armadillos, egrets, kingfishers, gulls, pelicans, gophers, green and black iguanas, crocodiles, bull frogs, toads and turtles. The aquatic fauna of the sea, rivers and lakes pertenciente the municipality: shark, whale, tilapia, catfish, tacazonte, snapper, lists, white bream, sea bass, shrimp, sardines, crab, pigua, scallops, oysters, clams, trout, octopus abundant zooplankton and an endless list of other reptiles, fish and poultry.

As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 43,913, up from 39,055 as of 2005.
As of 2010, the city of Mapastepec had a population of 17,931.

According to the results presented in the Second Census of Population and Housing in 2005, living in the town of 129 people who speak an indigenous language.

Mapastepec (meaning in the “Hill of the Raccoon”) is a town and municipality in the southern state of Chiapas, Mexico.

Mapastepec was founded as a people tributary of the Aztecs in 1486 under the name of Mapachtépec. In the first population census raised by the colonial authorities in 1611 had 265 inhabitants Mapastepec. On July 5, 1955, was upgraded to a villa by decree issued by Ephraim A. Osorio, Governor of the State of Chiapas.

• 1915 Disappeared political headquarters, and later, 59 municipalities are created free, be it within the first redistricting.
• 1955 July 5, Governor Efrain Aranda Osorio, promulgated the decree that rises to the level of village to the district capital.
• 1962 was built along the coastal road and the branch to which it links.
• 1983 They are located in the region VIII Soconusco.
• 1984 the building was constructed for the Presidency.
• 1990 was decreed nature reserve Triomphe.
• 1998 In September of that year, heavy rains caused rivers to overflow, leaving a balance of the disappearance of the town of Valdivia.

Chiapas has a wide variety of natural resources, unfortunately irrational exploitation has devastated large areas of woods and forests, causing loss of species of flora and fauna.

Within its territory there are lots of Biosphere Reserves Triumph and The Crossroads, in addition to the Reforestation Area Huizapa-Sesecapa.

The highlight, ecological reserves: that of “The Crossroads” south of town, near the Pacific Ocean, which contains the beautiful mangroves with its abundant flora and fauna of the “Idol” to the north, admitted to the closed forest of fog, over 2000 meters above sea level which houses the most diverse flora and fauna of the world, as it has the largest number of species of plants and animals gathered in a single protected area. In the offices of the National Commission of Protected Natural Areas (CONANP) located opposite the central park of the municipal seat can make reservations for guided tours to discover the stunning beauty of these ecological reserves.

The beaches can not go unnoticed, are of incomparable beauty, tourists can stay in touch with nature, it has many avenues of access road to their different itineraries.

Typical dishes of the municipality are: tamales iguana, armadillo stew and baked chicken, and marshmallow candies, and nuegados chilacayote and coconut water, beer, cocoa and white pozol.

The most important celebrations are: the San Pedro Apostol, is considered the patron of the city. Also performed the celebration of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Every March the Mango Fair is held, with major exhibitions and visit major musical figures.

…

Mythological beings used a variety of emblem glyphs in their titles indeed suggests a complex early history. For instance, K’uk’ B’ahlam, the supposed founder of the Palenque dynasty, is called a Toktan Ajaw in the text of the Temple of the Foliated Cross.

The famous structures that we know today probably represent a rebuilding effort in response to the attacks by the city of Calakmul and its client states in 599 and 611. One of the main figures responsible for rebuilding Palenque and for a renaissance in the city’s art and architecture is also one of the best-known Maya Ajaw, K’inich Janaab’ Pakal (Pacal the Great), who ruled from 615 to 683. He is best known through his funerary monument, dubbed the Temple of Inscriptions after the lengthy text preserved in the temple’s superstructure. At the time Alberto Ruz Lhuillier excavated Pakal’s tomb it was the richest and best preserved of any scientifically excavated burial then known from the ancient Americas. It held this position until the discovery of the rich Moche burials at Sipan, Peru and the recent discoveries at Copan and Calakmul.

Beside the attention that K’inich Janaab’ Pakal’s tomb brought to Palenque, the city is historically significant for its extensive hieroglyphic corpus composed during the reigns of Janaab’ Pakal his son K’inich Kan B’ahlam and his grandson K’inich Akal Mo’ Naab’, and for being the location where Heinrich Berlin and later Linda Schele and Peter Mathews outlined the first dynastic list for any Maya city. The work of Tatiana Proskouriakoff as well as that of Berlin, Schele, Mathews, and others initiated the intense historical investigations that characterized much of the scholarship on the ancient Maya from the 1960s to the present. The extensive iconography and textual corpus has also allowed for study of Classic period Maya mythology and ritual practice.

Early Classic period

The first ajaw, or king, of B’aakal that we know of was K’uk Balam (Quetzal Jaguar), who governed for four years starting in the year 431. After him, a king came to power, nicknamed Casper by archaeologists. The next two kings were probably Casper’s sons. Little was known about the first of these, B’utz Aj Sak Chiik, until 1994, when a tablet was found describing a ritual for the king. The first tablet mentioned his successor Ahkal Mo’ Naab I as a teenage prince, and therefore it is believed that there was a family relation between them. For unknown reasons, Akhal Mo’ Naab I had great prestige, so the kings who succeeded him were proud to be his descendants.

When Ahkal Mo’ Naab I died in 524, there was an interregnum of four years, before the following king was crowned en Toktán in 529. K’an Joy Chitam I governed for 36 years. His sons Ahkal Mo’ Naab II and K’an B’alam I were the first kings who used the title Kinich, which means “the great sun”. This word was used also by later kings. B’alam was succeeded in 583 by Yohl Ik’nal, who was supposedly his daughter. The inscriptions found in Palenque document a battle that occurred under her government in which troops from Calakmul invaded and sacked Palenque, a military feat without known precedents. These events took place in 599.

A second victory by Calakmul occurred some twelve years later, in 611, under the government of Aj Ne’ Yohl Mat, son of Yohl Iknal. In this occasion, the king of Calakmul entered Palenque in person, consolidating a significant military disaster, which was followed by an epoch of political disorder. Aj Ne’ Yohl Mat was to die in 612.

Late Classic period

B’aakal began the Late Classic period in the throes of the disorder created by the defeats before Calakmul. The glyphic panels at the Temple of Inscriptions, which records the events at this time, relates that some fundamental annual religious ceremonies were not performed in 613, and at this point states: “Lost is the divine lady, lost is the king.” Mentions of the government at the time have not been found.

It is believed that after the death of Aj Ne’ Yohl Mat, Janaab Pakal, also called Pakal I, took power thanks to a political agreement. Janaab Pakal assumed the functions of the ajaw (king) but never was crowned. He was succeeded in 612 by his daughter, the queen Sak K’uk’, who governed for only three years until her son was old enough to rule. It is considered that the dynasty was reestablished from then on, so B’aakal retook the path of glory and splendor.

The grandson of Janaab Pakal is the most famous of the Mayan kings, K’inich Janaab’ Pakal, also known as Pakal the Great. He began rule at the age of 12 years after his mother Sak Kuk resigned as queen after three years, thus passing power on to him. Pakal the Great reigned in Palenque from 615 to 683, and his mother remained an important force for the first 25 years of his rule. She may have ruled jointly with him. Known as the favorite of the gods, he carried Palenque to new levels of splendor, in spite of having come to power when the city was at a low point. Pakal married the princess of Oktán, Lady Tzakbu Ajaw (also known as Ahpo-Hel) in 624 and had at least three children.

During his government, most of the palaces and temples of Palenque were constructed; the city flourished as never before, eclipsing Tikal. The central complex, known as The Palace, was enlarged and remodeled on various occasions, notably in the years 654, 661, and 668. In this structure, is a text describing how in that epoch Palenque was newly allied with Tikal, and also with Yaxchilan, and that they were able to capture the six enemy kings of the alliance. Not much more had been translated from the text.

After the death of Pakal in 683, his older son K’inich Kan B’alam assumed the kingship of B’aakal, who in turn was succeeded in 702 by his brother K’inich K’an Joy Chitam II. The first continued the architectural and sculptural works that were begun by his father, as well as finishing the construction of the famous tomb of Pakal. Pakal’s sarcophagus, built for a very tall man, held the richest collection of jade seen in a Mayan tomb. A jade mosaic mask was placed over his face, and a suit made of jade adorned his body, with each piece hand-carved and held together by gold wire.

Furthermore, K’inich Kan B’alam I began ambitious projects, like the Group of the Crosses. Thanks to numerous works begun during his government, now we have portraits of this king, found in various sculptures. His brother succeeded him continuing with the same enthusiasm of construction and art, reconstructing and enlarging the north side of the Palace. Thanks to the reign of these three kings, B’aakal had a century of growing and splendor.

In 711, Palenque was sacked by the realm of Toniná, and the old king K’inich K’an Joy Chitam II was taken prisoner. It is not known what the final destination of the king was, and it is presumed that he was executed in Toniná. For 10 years there was no king. Finally, K’inich Ahkal Mo’ Nab’ III was crowned in 722. Although the new king belonged to the royalty, there is no reason to be sure that he was the direct inheritor direct of K’inich K’an Joy Chitam II. It is believed, therefore, that this coronation was a break in the dynastic line, and probably K’inich Ahkal Nab’ arrived to power after years of maneuvering and forging political alliances. This king, his son, and grandson governed until the end of the 8th century. Little is known about this period, except that, among other events, the war with Toniná continued, where there are hieroglyphics that record a new defeat of Palenque.

Abandonment

During the 8th century, B’aakal came under increasing stress, in concert with most other Classic Mayan city-states, and there was no new elite construction in the ceremonial center sometime after 800. An agricultural population continued to live here for a few generations, then the site was abandoned and was slowly grown over by the forest. The district was very sparsely populated when the Spanish first arrived in the 1520s. Occasionally city-state lords were women. Lady Sak Kuk ruled at Palenque for at least three years starting in 612 CE, before she passed her title to her son. However, these female rulers were accorded male attributes. Thus, these women became more masculine as they assumed roles that were typically male roles.

Temple of the Inscriptions

The Temple of Inscriptions had begun perhaps as early as 675 as the funerary monument of Hanab-Pakal. The temple superstructure houses the second longest glyphic text known from the Maya world (the longest is the Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copan). The Temple of the Inscriptions records approximately 180 years of the city’s history from the 4th through 12th K’atun. The focal point of the narrative records K’inich Janaab’ Pakal’s K’atun period-ending rituals focused on the icons of the city’s patron deities prosaically known collectively as the Palenque Triad or individually as GI, GII, and GIII.

The Pyramid measures 60 meters wide, 42.5 meters deep and 27.2 meters high. The Summit temple measures 25.5 meters wide, 10.5 meters deep and 11.4 meters high. The largest stones weigh 12 to 15 tons. These were on top of the Pyramid. The Total volume of pyramid and temple is 32,500 cu. meters.

In 1952 Alberto Ruz Lhuillier removed a stone slab in the floor of the back room of the temple superstructure to reveal a passageway (filled in shortly before the city’s abandonment and reopened by archeologists) leading through a long stairway to Pakal’s tomb. The tomb itself is remarkable for its large carved sarcophagus, the rich ornaments accompanying Pakal, and for the stucco sculpture decorating the walls of the tomb. Unique to Pakal’s tomb is the psychoduct, which leads from the tomb itself, up the stairway and through a hole in the stone covering the entrance to the burial. This psychoduct is perhaps a physical reference to concepts about the departure of the soul at the time of death in Maya eschatology where in the inscriptions the phrase ochb’ihaj sak ik’il (the white breath road-entered) is used to refer to the leaving of the soul. A find such as this is greatly important because it demonstrated for the first time the temple usage as being multifaceted. These pyramids were, for the first time, identified as temples and also funerary structures.

The much-discussed iconography of the sarcophagus lid depicts Pakal in the guise of one of the manifestations of the Maya Maize God emerging from the maws of the underworld.

The temple also has a duct structure that still is not completely understood by archaeologists. It has been suggested that the duct aligns with the winter solstice and that the sun shines down on Pakal’s tomb.

Temples of the Cross group

The Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Sun, and Temple of the Foliated Cross are a set of graceful temples atop step pyramids, each with an elaborately carved relief in the inner chamber depicting two figures presenting ritual objects and effigies to a central icon. Earlier interpretations had argued that the smaller figure was that of K’inich Janaab’ Pakal while the larger figure was K’inich Kan B’ahlam. However, it is now known based on a better understanding of the iconography and epigraphy that the central tablet depicts two images of Kan B’ahlam. The smaller figure shows K’inich Kan B’ahlam during a rite of passage ritual at the age of six (9.10.8.9.3 9 Akbal 6 Xul) while the larger is of his accession to kingship at the age of 48. These temples were named by early explorers; the cross-like images in two of the reliefs actually depict the tree of creation at the center of the world in Maya mythology.

Palace

The Palace, a complex of several connected and adjacent buildings and courtyards, was built by several generations on a wide artificial terrace during four century period. The Palace was used by the Mayan aristocracy for bureaucratic functions, entertainment, and ritualistic ceremonies. The Palace is located in the center of the ancient city.

Within the Palace there are numerous sculptures and bas-relief carvings that have been conserved. The Palace most unusual and recognizable feature is the four-story tower known as The Observation Tower. The Observation Tower like many other buildings at the site exhibit a mansard-like roof. The A-shaped Corbel arch is an architectural motif observed throughout the complex. The Corbel arches require a large amount of masonry mass and are limited to a small dimensional ratio of width to height providing the characteristic high ceilings and narrow passageways. The Palace was equipped with numerous large baths and saunas which were supplied with fresh water by an intricate water system. An aqueduct, constructed of great stone blocks with a three-meter-high vault, diverts the Otulum River to flow underneath the main plaza. The Palace is the largest building complex in Palenque measuring 97 meters by 73 meters at its base.

Other Notable Constructions

The Temple of the Skull has a skull on one of the pillars.

Temple XIII contained the Tomb of the Red Queen, an unknown noble woman, possibly the wife of Pakal, discovered in 1994. The remains in the sarcophagus were completely covered with a bright red powder made of cinnabar.

The Temple of The Jaguar (a.k.a. The Temple of the Beautiful Relief) at a distance of some 200 meters south of the main group of temples; its name came from the elaborate bas-relief carving of a king seated on a throne in the form of a jaguar.

Structure XII with a bas-relief carving of the God of Death.

Temple of the Count another elegant Classic Palenque temple, which got its name from the fact that early explorer Jean Frederic Waldeck lived in the building for some time, and Waldeck claimed to be a count.

The site also has a number of other temples, tombs, and elite residences, some a good distance from the center of the site, a court for playing the Mesoamerican Ballgame, and an interesting stone bridge over the Otulum River some distance below the Aqueduct.

Palenque is perhaps the most studied and written about of Maya sites.

After de la Nada’s brief account of the ruins no attention was paid to them until 1773 when one Don Ramon de Ordoñez y Aguilar examined Palenque and sent a report to the Capitan General in Antigua Guatemala, a further examination was made in 1784 saying that the ruins were of particular interest, so two years later surveyor and architect Antonio Bernasconi was sent with a small military force under Colonel Antonio del Río to examine the site in more detail. Del Rio’s forces smashed through several walls to see what could be found, doing a fair amount of damage to the Palace, while Bernasconi made the first map of the site as well as drawing copies of a few of the bas-relief figures and sculptures. Draughtsman Luciano Castañeda made more drawings in 1807, and a book on Palenque, Descriptions of the Ruins of an Ancient City, discovered near Palenque, was published in London in 1822 based on the reports of those last two expeditions together with engravings based on Bernasconi and Castañedas drawings; two more publications in 1834 contained descriptions and drawings based on the same sources.

Juan Galindo visited Palenque in 1831, and filed a report with the Central American government. He was the first to note that the figures depicted in Palenque’s ancient art looked like the local Native Americans; some other early explorers, even years later, attributed the site to such distant peoples as Egyptians, Polynesians, or the Lost Tribes of Israel.

Starting in 1832 Jean Frederic Waldeck spent two years at Palenque making numerous drawings, but most of his work was not published until 1866. Meanwhile, the site was visited in 1840 first by Patrick Walker and Herbert Caddy on a mission from the governor of British Honduras, and then by John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood who published an illustrated account the following year which was greatly superior to the previous accounts of the ruins.

Désiré Charnay took the first photographs of Palenque in 1858, and returned in 1881–1882. Alfred Maudslay encamped at the ruins in 1890–1891 and took extensive photographs of all the art and inscriptions he could find, and made paper and plaster molds of many of the inscriptions, and detailed maps and drawings, setting a high standard for all future investigators to follow. Maudslay learned the technique of making the papier mache molds of the sculptures from Frenchman Desire Charnay.

Several other expeditions visited the ruins before Frans Blom of Tulane University in 1923, who made superior maps of both the main site and various previously neglected outlying ruins and filed a report for the Mexican government on recommendations on work that could be done to preserve the ruins.

From 1949 through 1952 Alberto Ruz Lhuillier supervised excavations and consolidations of the site for Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH); it was Ruz Lhuillier who was the first person to gaze upon Pacal the Great’s tomb in over a thousand years. Ruz worked for four years at the Temple of Inscriptions before unearthing the tomb. Further INAH work was done in lead by Jorge Acosta into the 1970s.

In 1973, the first of the very productive Palenque Mesa Redonda (Round table) conferences was held here on the inspiration of Merle Greene Robertson; thereafter every few years leading Mayanists would meet at Palenque to discuss and examine new findings in the field. Meanwhile, Robertson was conducting a detailed examination of all art at Palenque, including recording all the traces of color on the sculptures.

The 1970s also saw a small museum built at the site.

In the last 15 or 20 years, a great deal more of the site has been excavated, but currently, archaeologists estimate that only 5% of the total city has been uncovered

Palenque remains much visited, and perhaps evokes more affection in visitors than any other Mesoamerican ruin.

In 2010, Pennsylvania State University researchers, Christopher Duffy and Kirk French, identified the Piedras Bolas Aqueduct as a pressurised aqueduct, the earliest known in the New World. It is a spring-fed conduit located on steep terrain that has a restricted opening that would cause the water to exit forcefully, under pressure, to a height of 6 metres (20 ft). They were unable to identify the use for this man-made feature.

By bus

The easiest way to get to Palenque is by bus from Villahermosa (2:50 hours).
There are also many buses daily from San Cristobal de las Casas (4:10/5:00 hours).

More bus options:

Bus from Tuxtla Gutiérrez (6 hours).
Bus from Merida (8 hours).
Bus from Campeche (5 hours).
Bus from Cancun (13 hours).

By colectivo

Also if you would like to blend in with people and culture colectivos (Passenger Van) are the best way.
Colectivos start early in the morning mostly by 4am.

Take a colectivo San Cristobal de las Casas to Ocosingo (3 hours).
And from Ocosingo to Palenque (3 hours).

You can stay overnight in any of these towns to continue your journey the next day.
Taxis are really cheap around 20 Pesos to most of the hostels/hotels.

The ruins are about 6 km from the town of Palenque and colectivos run between the town and ruins every 10 to 15 minutes during the day.

There are a number of visitors (both International and Mexican) who drive around, so hitchhiking is another option.

Spend a whole day exploring the site which spreads over 15 sq km. Only the central acropolis has been excavated.

The Templo de Las Inscripciones, a burial monument, is the tallest building.

El Palacio, the rulers’ residence, was built in stages from 400 AD to 900 AD and underwent restoration in 1955.

There’s a 31 peso fee to enter the national park, and then another 65 peso for the ruin site (September 2016).

There are two entrances to the ruins – The first one starts from the jungle part of the ruins and is often overlooked by people who head straight to the main entrance 1.5 km away.

If you arrive there in the early morning (The ruin opens at 8am), you would likely be the only one to enjoy the serenity of the ruins before other visitors start coming in.

Palenque gets hot and humid around noon, so start the trip early!

There is an entrance to the trail between ruin entrances – don’t miss it for more ‘jungle experience’ featuring howler monkeys, waterfalls and hidden ruins.

A short hike to the nearby Mishol-Ha waterfall offers a variation on the ruin touring. This is a high waterfall into a natural pool with a path leading behind the falls to a cave. Bring a swimsuit and only swim during low flows.

Many tour operators will offer guided visits of the ruins, providing added background and knowledge regarding Palenque’s history.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Palenque refers both to the modern city and the municipality for which it is the local governing authority.

As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 110,918.

As of 2010, the city of Palenque had a population of 42,947, up from 37,301 as of 2005.[2] Other than the city of Palenque, the municipality had 950 localities, the largest of which (with 2010 populations in parentheses) were: Río Chancalá (2,156), Doctor Samuel León Brindis (1,320), Agua Blanca Serranía (1,263), Arimatea (1,251), and Profresor Roberto Barrios (1,173), classified as rural.

As of 2005, the city had a population of The city of Palenque is the only urban area of the municipality which covers a territory of 1,122.80km2. The city was founded in 1567 by Pedro Lorenzo. In 1573, the community was presented with three bells as a symbol of its foundation. Of the three only one survives, which is found in the main church of the city. Although it is a city, it is surrounded by jungle vegetation only sixty meters above sea level, which contains many of Chiapas’ emblematic species such as the howler monkey. These monkeys have been seen within the city of Palenque itself, since the lack of range forces them to look for food near human settlements; some become lost or disoriented and are even run over by cars. One creature so injured was taken to the Eco Parque Aluxes for medical treatment.

The municipality borders the municipalities of Catazajá, La Libertad, Ocosingo, Chilán and Salto de Agua. It also borders the state of Tabasco and the country of Guatemala to the east. Aside from the municipal seat, other important communities include Río Chancala, Bajadas Grandes. Agua Blanca Serranía, Dr. Samuel León Brindis, Nueva Esperanza Primera Sección, Lázaro Cárdenas, Emilio Rabasa and El Naranjo. The city as an altitude of sixty meters above sea level.

As of 2005, the municipality has 20,222 inhabited residences, with about 80% the property of the residents. Average number of residents per unit is 4.84, under the regional average of 5.32 and on par with the state average. About 37% of these residences have dirt floors, 55% with cement floors and under 7% with wood, mosaic or other flooring. Over 52% of units have wood walls, with about 42% made of block. About 56% of units have asbestos or metallic roofs, with just under 19% having a concrete slab for a roof. 86.37% of residences have electricity, 75.81% have running water, and 56.77 have sewerage systems. These are above region average and on par with the state average.

The municipality has 28 post offices and a telegraph office. There are also telephone centers for those who do not have home service. The municipality contains 569.99 km of roadway, with mostly rural roads (137.46 km) and state highways (149.20 km). The municipality has 14.8% of the Selva region’s highways. The municipality is reached by Highway 199 from San Cristóbal and Highway 186 from Escárcega.

From 1990 to 2000, the population grew from 63,209 to 85,464. The rate of population growth is 3.12%, higher than that of the region and state at 2.32 and 2.05 respectively. It is predicted to double within 25 years. About 35% live in urban areas with the rest dispersed in 679 rural communities, or over 99% of all of the municipality’s communities. Its population density is 76 per km2, well above the regional average of 29/km2 and state average of 52/km2. However, the birth rate is 3.53 per woman of reproductive age versus 4.26 for the region and about average for the state.

As of 2000, the rate of illiteracy was 23.77%, down from 31.43% in 1990. The state average is 22.91%. For those over the age of fifteen, 27.66% have not finished primary school. 15.73% have only finished primary school, and 31.5% have studied beyond this level.

The city and municipality area have a large Ch’ol indigenous population. As of 2005, there were 37,032 people who spoke an indigenous language, out of a total population of 85,464. Just over forty percent (40.60%) of the population is indigenous compared to just under 25% for the state and just under 65% for the region. The predominant ethnicity is Ch’ol. Just over twenty percent of indigenous residents do not speak Spanish. The municipality sponsors an annual Festival Mundo Maya (Mayan World Festival) in April focusing on the culture, folklore, crafts, food and clothing of the indigenous people descended from the Mayas. The event attracts participants from Tabasco, Yucatán, Campeche and parts of Puebla.

About 53% profess the Catholic faith, with 25.67 Protestant, 5.44 Evangelical and 14.83% professing no religion. The municipality’s Protestant and Evangelical percentages are higher than that of the state in general. The most important religious celebrations are feast of Saint Dominic and Francis of Assisi. Each year, the city of Palenque sponsors a passion play, selecting one young man from the area to play Jesus. The play mirrors the 14 Stations of the Cross, ending with the crucifixion. The event begins at the parish church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán.

The name Palenque comes from Spanish and means “wood stake fence”. It is a literal translation of the Ch’ol word “otulún” which means fenced or fortified place.

The modern town was founded by Friar Pedro Lorenzo near the ruins of the same name in 1567. It was founded to congregate the Ch’ol indigenous families that were dispersed in this part of the Lacadon rainforest.

In 1768, the state of Chiapas was divided into “alcaldía mayores” with Palenque belonging to that of Ciudad Real (San Cristóbal de las Casas).

In 1813, the settlement was officially declared a town.

In 1821, a road between Bachajon and Palenque was constructed, and the town’s first school was established in 1828.

In 1847, the area became part of the department of Tila, but two year later, it was made into its own department.
The annual fair of Santo Domingo (Saint Dominic) was officially authorized in 1877.

In 1883, the state was reorganized into twelve departments with Palenque as head of one of them. A railroad connecting the town with the Gulf of Mexico was constructed at this time, with the Pakalna station, which still exists.

The municipality system was created in the state in 1915, with Palenque head of its own municipality.

The first airfield was established in 1931 and mail and telegraph arrived in 1941.

In 1972, it was declared a city by the governor of the state of Chiapas.

The Casa de Cultura was founded in 1980 with the main road paved in 1990.
The Cecytec technical college was founded in 1994.
The modern airport was created in 1997.

The ancient Mayan site of Palenque was unknown to the Spanish when they founded the town, but since its discovery in 1740 by Father Antonio Solís, it has been important to the city and municipality both culturally and economically.

The ruins were officially visited in 1773 by Ramon Ordóñez de Aguilar representing the province of Guatemala, to which Chiapas belonged.

The ruins were visited by English explorer Thomas McKay in 1822.

The tomb of Pakal was discovered by Alberto Ruz Lhuillier in 1951.

The Palenque site museum was established in 1958.

Today, the site is one of the most important tourism attractions in Chiapas.

Most the municipality lies on the plains that lead north to the Gulf of Mexico with small portions located in the mountains called the Montañas del Oriente and the Montañas del Norte. It is part of the Selva region of the state, and borders the Lacandon Jungle.

Its climate is hot and humid with rains all year round. It has mostly tropical rainforest vegetation; however, much of this has been over exploited with many forest areas devastated. Among its rivers are the Usumacinta, with tributaries Chamacax, Chancalá, Chocoljaito along with Bascán, Michol, San Simón and Trapiche.
There is one lake called Lago Metzaboc.

The municipality is home to the Palenque National Park and the Metzabok Conservation Zone.

Palenque National Park was established in 1981, and covers the areas were the Montañas del Norte meet the coastal plain, an area of 1771.95 hectares. It was established to conserve perennial rainforest which is in danger of disappearing as well as a number of endangered species.

The park surrounds the archeological site of Palenque, and both the site and the park are listed together as a World Heritage Site. It was established in 1981. The national park is home to a number of emblematic Chiapan species including the howler monkey, which is endangered due to deforestation.

Metzabok was established in 1996 in the Montañas de Oriente extending from Palenque into neighboring Ocosingo. It has an area of 3337.8 hectares of highly diverse and fragile ecosystems of both perennial and deciduous rainforest as well as some mesophile forest.

The municipality is considered to be highly marginalized economically. Of those economically active, 51.86 are employed in farming and livestock. 49.26% of those in this sector do not receive wages, with only half a percent receiving more than five payments per year. 10.36% are employed in construction and industry, of which just under six percent do not receive payment. 35.62% are employed in commerce and services including tourism. This is above the regional average and about equal to the state average. About 6.5% of these workers do not receive any wages.

The main tourist attraction is the archeological site of Palenque, located seven km from the city. This site is one of the most important for the state, as it is known internationally. The site is part of the Maya Route, which also includes sites such as Yaxchilan and Bonampak all in the Lacandon Jungle. Tourism infrastructure includes 67 hotels with just under 2,000 rooms, almost all location in the city of Palenque. Palenque is one of the sites in Mexico which receives large numbers of visitors for the spring equinox, along with Teotihuacan, and Chichén Itzá. Each year, the municipality, along with other government agencies, put in place extra security measures during Holy Week, as this is a major vacation period in Mexico, bringing large numbers of visitors to the area. Extra safeguards are also put into place to protect the ruins at the Palenque site as well.

The ancient city was a major one of the Mayan civilization, which developed during the Classic period. The main attractions of the site include the Temple of the Inscriptions and the Palace. The site is noted for the size of its buildings as well as number and large number of glyph inscriptions. It is also the site of the tomb of King Pakal, discovered in the 1950s, one of the most important Mayan discoveries of the 20th century. The largest and most complex structure is the Palace with its four story tower. Other important structures include Temple of the Cross, Temple of the Foliated Cross and the Temple of the Sun. The site has its own museum in the National Park area in a modern building, with an addition made in 1995. There are two main halls with one temporary one. It focuses on the ancient city’s importance in Mayan world and the history of its excavation, including work done as recent as the mid 1990s.

Lesser known are a number of ecotourism sites. One of the most recent ecotourism parks to be created include the “Ecoparque los Aluxes” just outside the city of Palenque. It is a conservation center with facilities to rescue wildlife. It also has natural enclosures containing species such as jaguars, ocelots, bobcats, red and green macaws, spider monkeys, parrots, turtles and various bird species. The facility has relations with other similar ecotourism parks such as Xcaret Park. One of the institution’s goals is to release fifty macaws per year into the surrounding Palenque National Park. The Palenque National Park surrounds the archeological site of the same name and includes dense tropical rainforest and streams with blue waters. Together, they have been classified as a World Heritage Site. Near the park are two major waterfalls called Agua Azul and Misol Há. The park contains hiking paths to see the various areas of vegetations along with streams and small waterfalls. The rainforest contains numerous birds and howler monkeys.

The municipality is mostly made up of mountainous terrain, but the city sits in a small valley surrounded by hills.

The city and municipality are located in a region called the Central Highlands. Two thirds of the municipality is made up of mountainous terrain with the rest valley floor.

The city proper is located at 2,200 meters above sea level in a small valley surrounded by hills. The most important of these hills include Cerro Huitepec, San José Bocomtenelté, Cerro San Felipe, Cerro El Extranjero, Cerro Cruz Carreta, El Arcotete and Cerro Tzontehuitz.

While it is in a tropical zone, its climate is temperate due to the altitude. The climate is also humid, with cloud cover in the winter months that keeps temperatures down and can produce cold nights.

Average temperature between December and April is 18 °C. The area receives most of its rain in the summer to early fall. However, the cloud cover that exists in winter is generally absent and daytime temperatures can go up to 35 °C with high humidity.

Due to its high altitude the city temperatures can reach temperatures below 0 °C.

Many homes burn firewood for warmth in cold weather. This can give the city a slightly smoky smell although the number of homes burning firewood for warmth has dropped in the last two decades as more homes are integrating climate-control systems under city recommendations.

The natural vegetation of the area is a forest of pine and oak trees. However, most of the surrounding hills have lost their native trees, with deforestation rates at 80%, losing 15,000 hectares just since 1980. Reasons for this include cutting for firewood, urban development, poor resource management, fires and agriculture. The deforestation has led to erosion problems blocking rivers and streams and affecting underground recharge of the area’s freshwater springs.

The main rivers are the Amarillo and Fogótico along with a number of streams such as the Chamula, Peje de Oro and Ojo de Agua.

There are also two lakes called the Chapultepec and Cochi. The city had twenty-five natural fresh water springs, but deforestation has dried up seven and twelve flow only during the rainy season, leaving six for the city year round. These and the remaining surface lakes were declared protected in 2008.

San Cristóbal de las Casas has a mild subtropical highland climate moderated by its altitude.

The dry season, which runs from November to April is cool with a January average of 12.3 °C (54.1 °F). Owing to its altitude and the relative aridity of the dry season, San Cristóbal de las Casas has a fairly high diurnal temperature range and nighttime temperatures are cool.

Extended periods of frosts are rare, occurring only 2–3 days per year in December to February. Humidity is high (around 78%), even during the winter months, and fog or mist is quite common during the winter months, occurring 13–17 days per month with fog. Usually, this clears off during the day.

The wet season, which runs from May to October is warmer, with a June average of 17.0 °C (62.6 °F) and precipitation is significantly higher during these months. Fog is less common during this time.

Average annual precipitation is 1,084.7 millimetres (42.7 in) most of it concentrated in the wet season. The wettest month recorded was September 1998 when 525.8 millimetres (20.7 in) of precipitation was recorded, and the wettest day recorded was on October 4, 2005 with105 millimetres (4.1 in). Extremes range from a low of −8.5 °C (16.7 °F) to 35.8 °C (96.4 °F).

In 2010 the municipality of San Cristóbal de las Casas had a total population of 185,917, and the city of 158,027.

As of 2010, 59,943 people in the municipality spoke an indigenous language.
The two most important ethnic groups in the area are the Tzotzil and Tzetzal.

The city was founded as Villa Real de Chiapa in 1528 by Diego de Mazariegos in what was called the Hueyzacatlán Valley, which means “pasture” in Nahuatl. From then on, the city went through a number of name changes: to Villa Viciosa in 1529, to Villa de San Cristóbal de los Llanos in 1531, and to Ciudad Real in 1536.

It was changed to Ciudad de San Cristóbal in 1829. “de las Casas” was added in 1848 in honor of Bartolomé de las Casas. There were some modifications in the early 20th century to the name but it returned to San Cristóbal de las Casas in 1943.

In the Tzotzil and Tzeltal languages the name of the area is Jovel, “the place in the clouds”.

The area did not have a pre-Hispanic city. After defeating the Zoques in the Northern Mountains and the Chiapans of this area, Diego de Mazariegos founded the city as a military fort. This city and much of what would be the state of Chiapas came under the Captaincy General of Guatemala in 1532 headed by Pedro de Alvarado. San Cristóbal received its coat of arms in 1535 from Carlos V and it was officially declared a city in 1536. The city gained the rank of Alcadía Mayor in 1577 which gave it authority over much of Chiapas north of it. The intendencia of Chiapas was created in 1786 combining San Cristóbal’s territory with that of Tuxtla and Soconusco, with the government in San Cristóbal. In 1821, the city followed Comitán de Domínguez’ declaration of independence from Spain and the Captaincy General of Guatemala. However, the city and the rest of Chiapas would become a part of Mexico in 1824, with the capital established here.

In 1829, the name Ciudad Real was changed to San Cristóbal. In the 19th century, the state government would shift back and forth between San Cristóbal, in the highlands dominated by Conservatives, and Tuxtla, dominated by Liberals.

Independent tendencies arose again in 1853, when the Plan of Yalmús was announced declaring the then Mexican Constitution null. Conservative forces attacked the city in 1857 but were dislodged shortly thereafter by Liberal Angel Albino Corzo. The last of French forces were expelled from the city in 1864. The state government was moved from San Cristóbal to Tuxtla for good in 1892 by the Liberal government. There was a failed attempt in 1911 by Conservatives in San Cristóbal and neighboring San Juan Chamula to force the return of the capital.

In 1915, the state went to the municipality system with San Cristóbal becoming a municipality. Originally, it had jurisdiction over communities such as San Lucas, Zinacantán, San Felipe Ecatepec, Tenejapa, San Miguel Mitontic, Huixtan and Chanal, but these would later separate to become municipalities in their own right. In the 20th century, the outskirts of the city become filled with open pit mines for gravel and sand. There was even one opened on a hill in the San Diego and La Florecilla neighborhoods, near the historic center called Salsipuedes. These prompted environmental and local community organizations to protest, stating that the valley is a closed water basin and the mining negatively affects potable water supplies. Salsipuedes was closed in the 2000s.

The city was declared a national historic monument in 1974.

San Cristóbal became the center of political activism with the election of Samuel Ruiz as bishop of Chiapas in 1960. In the 1960s and 1970s, the traditional Catholic Church was losing indigenous adherents to Protestant and other Christian groups. To counter this, Ruiz supported and worked with Marist priests and nuns following an ideology called liberation theology. In 1974 he organized a statewide Indian Congress with representatives from 327 communities of the Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Tojolabal and Ch’ol peoples as well as Marists and the Maoist People’s Union. This congress was the first of its kind with the goal of uniting the indigenous peoples politically. These efforts were also supported by leftist organizations from outside Mexico, especially to form unions of ejido organizations. These unions would later form the base of the EZLN organization. These efforts would also create a “new” type of Catholic in the state called “Word of God” Catholic. These would shun the “traditionalist” Catholic practice mixed with indigenous rites and beliefs. It would also create a split in many communities as the “Word of God” Catholics were loyal directly to the bishop in San Cristóbal, with traditionalists loyal to local cacique leaders.

Activism and resentment continued from the 1970s to the 1990s. During this decade, the Mexican federal government adopted neoliberalism, which clashed with the leftist political ideas of liberation theology and many of the indigenous activist groups. Despite the activism, economic marginalization among indigenous groups remained high, with resentment strongest in the San Cristóbal region and in migrant communities living in the Lacandon Jungle.

The grievances of these activists would be taken up by a small guerrilla band led by a man called only “Subcomandante Marcos.” His small band, called the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN), came to the world’s attention when on January 1, 1994, the day the NAFTA treaty went into effect. On this day, EZLN forces occupied and took over the towns of San Cristóbal de las Casas, along with six other Chiapas communities. They read their proclamation of revolt to the world and then laid siege to a nearby military base, capturing weapons and releasing many prisoners from the jails. Ruiz negotiated between the EZLN and authorities even though his leftist activism made him suspect to many authorities. This would undermine efforts and eventually the Catholic Church would split from the Zapatista movement. However, the negotiations would lead to the San Andrés Accords and ended the rebellion peacefully. By the time he died in 2011, Subcomandante Marcos was locally given the name of “Tatic”, which means “father” in Tzotzil, and received numerous distinctions including the Simón Bolívar Prize from UNESCO and the International Human Rights Award in Nuremberg.

Tourism is based on the city’s history, culture and indigenous population, although the tourism itself has affected the city, giving it foreign elements. Major landmarks of the city include the Cathedral, the Santo Domingo church with its large open air crafts market and the Casa Na Bolom museum. The municipality has suffered severe deforestation, but it has natural attractions such as caves and rivers.

The city, especially the historic center, has maintained its Spanish colonial layout, with narrow cobblestone streets, roofs covered in red clay tile and wrought iron balconies with flowers. The facades of the buildings vary from Baroque to Neoclassical and Moorish, painted in various colors.

Milk delivery from local dairy farms still use canisters on donkeys, and farmers typically still use horses and donkeys for hauling wood and farmed goods within their own properties .

The city subdivides into three sections but the majority of the population lives in the central section near the city center. Many of the surrounding hills have lost their native trees, in part due to cutting firewood and logging operations which feed the local manufacturing and construction industries.

The center of the city is its main plaza. This plaza’s official name is Plaza 31 de marzo, but it is more often simply called the Zócalo. In the colonial era, the city’s main market was here as well as the main water supply. Today, it is centered on a kiosk which was added in the early 20th century. The corners of this structure have inscriptions marking the major events of San Cristóbal’s history. The rest of the plaza is filled with gardens and surrounded by the most important buildings and finest homes from the history of the city. Surrounding this plaza are the city’s most important buildings such as the Cathedral and the city hall.

The Cathedral is to the north of the main plaza and it is the most emblematic symbol of the city. However, the main facade does not face the Zócalo, rather it faces its own atrium which is called the Cathedral Plaza. The Cathedral began as a modest church dedicated to the Virgin of the Assumption built in 1528. When Chiapas became a diocese in the 17th century, with San Cristóbal as its seat, this church was torn down to build the current structure, dedicated to Saint Christopher, the patron of the city. The overall structure contains European Baroque, Moorish and indigenous influences. The main facade was finished in 1721 and some final touches were added in the 20th century. The main feature of the church is its main facade, which was finished in 1721. It is Baroque painted yellow with ornamental columns and niches in which are various saints. It is divided into three horizontal and three vertical levels marked off by pairs of Solomonic columns and meant to resemble an altarpiece. It is further decorated with intricate raised stucco work mostly in white which show Oaxacan and Guatemalan influences. The layout of the interior shows Moorish influence. The main altar is dedicated to both the Virgin of the Assumption and Saint Christopher. The wood pulpit is from the 16th century and gilded. The side walls have two Baroque altarpieces, one to the Virgin of the Assumption and the other to John of Nepomuk. There is also a small chapel dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe on the north side. The sacristy has a large colonial era paintings of Jesus in Gesethame by Juan Correa as well as paintings by Miguel Cabrera and Eusebio de Aguilar. It is common to see older indigenous women in the Cathedral, with some even traversing the entire nave on their knees to approach the large image of Jesus handing above the Baroque altar.

At the back of the Cathedral, there is an affixed church called the San Nicolás Temple. It was constructed between 1613 and 1621 in Moorish design by Augustinian monks for use by the indigenous population. It is the only church in the city which has not been significantly altered since its construction. The roof is pitched and pyramid shaped built with wood and tile, and its facade is made of stone and brick with little ornamentation. Two of its images, the Señor de la Misericordia and the Virgen de los Dolores are both from Guatemala.

The city hall, often called the Palacio de Gobierno, is a Neoclassical construction which was built in the 19th century by architect Carlos Z. Flores. It contains a series of arches supported by Tuscan columns. In front of the city hall at night, young men and women promenade past each other in opposite directions around the gazebo. The city hall is scene to fairly frequent protests, some directly associated with the Zapatistas and others are held by student activists from UNAM in Mexico City. These protests are generally accompanied by lines of riot police.

When Dominicans came to San Cristóbal from Seville, Spain, they were given an area of land to construct their church and monastery. The first stone was laid in 1547 by Francisco Marroqui, then Bishop of Guatemala. The monastery was finished in 1551. It is one of the most ornate structures in Latin America, both due to the stucco work on the main facade and the gilded altarpieces which completely cover the length on the church’s interior. The facade of the main church is Baroque with Salomonic columns heavily decorated in stucco forms to mimic an altarpiece. The interior has a pulpit carved of wood and covered in gold leaf. The walls are covered in Baroque altarpieces includes those dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The La Caridad Temple was constructed on the site in 1712, established as part of the first hospital for the indigenous. The main facade of this church is designed as an altarpiece with two levels, a central bell tower and Tuscan columns and pilasters. Its design is derived from the Baroque that developed in Lima, Peru. There is an image of the Virgen de la Caridad (Virgin of Charity) carrying a baton like a military general. There is also a notable sculpture of Saint James on horseback. The complex contains two museums. The Museo de la Historia de la Ciudad covers the history of the city until the 19th century. Of this collection, the two most important pieces are some petals of a pomegranate flower, from a receptacle for the Host in the Cathedral. It is one of the most important works of Chiapas silversmithing. The rest of the piece has been lost. The other is a part of the original choir seating of the same Cathedral. The Centro Cultural de los Altos has a collection of some of the area’s textiles from each ethnicity and exhibits on how they are made. It has a store associated with it called the Sna-Jolobil, which means house of weaving in Tzotzil

The La Merced monastery was the first in the city founded by the Mercedarians from Guatemala in 1537. It was built as a fortress with barracks for soldiers and space for citizens in case of attack. The church entrance has a massive wooden door with wrought iron hinges and fastenings. There are very few windows and those that exist are built to allow muskets to fire on attackers. The entire structure is built with extensions and abutments to provide for interlocking fields of fire. Entry to the fortifications is denied as too dangerous. The church still functions as such. It consists of a single nave, with interior remodeled in Neoclassical design during the Porfirio Díaz era. The oldest part of the structure is an arch and columns located in the interior of the sacristy, which is decorated in stucco of various colors with floral and vegetative motifs. At the foot of the column, there are two lions symbolizing Spanish domination. In the latter half of the 19th century, the structure was used as a military barracks and in 1960, it was converted into the city jail which it remained until 1993. In 2000 the former monastery was further converted into the Museum of Amber, which has a collection of over three hundred pieces and is the only one of its kind in the Americas.

The Carmen Temple and the Arco Torre, both in Moorish style, are located on Andador Eclesiastico. The Carmen Temple is all that remains of the former La Encarnación convent which was founded in 1597 with the first nuns arriving between 1609 and 1610. The complex includes the old cloister, nuns’ cells and other structures. The original church building burned and it was restored conserving its simple facade. One unusual feature of the church is that its layout is L-shaped, covering the south and west sides of a small plaza. Inside, the walls have carved wood panels and a Neoclassical altar which has been recently restored. In the colonial period, the convent and church served as one of the main entrances into the city. An arch with tower was constructed next to the convent in 1680, now simply called the Arco del Carmen. This arch is in pure Moorish style, with three levels of decoration. It is the only one of its style in Mexico. This arch with its accompanying tower has been adopted as one of the symbols of San Cristóbal.

The San Cristóbal Church is atop a long staircase up the hill. It is often closed but it offers panoramic views of the city. At the San Cristóbal church the patron saint is celebrated on 25 July with marimbas, food and fireworks. For ten days previously, each of the main neighborhoods has a pilgrimage to the top of the hill.

The San Francisco Church was built by the Franciscans in 1577 as a monastery but only the church survives. The current church was built in the 18th century with a single nave covered in a wood and tile roof. The main facade has three levels and two side towers. Inside, it has six Baroque altarpieces. The upper part of the nave has fourteen oil paintings. The atrium has a sculpted stone baptismal font.

The Guadalupe Church is located on the Cerro de Guadalupe. It was constructed in 1834. To reach it, there are seventy nine stairs up the hill. The church has a single nave with a side chapel. The main altar has an oil painting of the Virgin of Guadalupe and the side chapel contains a sculpture of the Virgin from 1850. The atrium affords panoramic views of the city. The feast of this Virgin is celebrated annually with a parade on the main street with fireworks, rockets and candlelight vigils.

The Santo Tomas Church is just north of the historic center. It has a museum in the back, in a building which was the barracks and parade grounds built when the city was founded.

The Santa Lucía Church was constructed in 1884 by architect Carlos Z. Flores over what was a dilapidated chapel. It consists of a single nave with pilasters on its walls and pointed arches. The main altar is Gothic with Neoclassical and Art Nouveau elements.

Casa de las Sirenas is one of the most notable domestic structures from the colonial era. It was built by Andrés de la Tovilla in Plateresque style and dates from the 16th century. It is named after a mermaid that appears on its crest in one of the corners. The Antiguo Colegio de San Francisco Javier today houses the Faculty of Law of the state university. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1681 for the education of the Spanish elite. Its current facade is two levels in Neoclassical style. The interior contains murals about the Spanish conquest of Mexico.

Casa Na Bolom (House of the Jaguar) is a museum, hotel and restaurant located outside the city’s historic center. The structure was built as part of a seminary in 1891, but it became the home of Frans Blom and Gertrude Duby Blom in the 20th century. Franz was an explorer and archeologist and Gertrude was a journalist and photographer. The couple spent over fifty years in Chiapas collecting tools, crafts, archeological pieces and clothing, especially related to the Lacandon Jungle and people. The museum is dedicated to this collection along with keeping some of the old household rooms intact, such as Franz’s study. It also contains a library with more than 10,000 volumes dedicated to the history, culture and anthropology of the region. There are also magazine and sound libraries as well as the old chapel which contains colonial era religious art. The back of the structure contains a botanical garden.

The Museo Mesoamericano del Jade has jade pieces from the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mixtec, Zapotec, Maya, Toltec and Aztec cultures. There is also a life-sized replica of the burial chamber of Pakal of Palenque as it looked when the king was buried. The Maya Medicine Museum is dedicated to the various techniques and practices of indigenous medicine, many of which are still practiced today. The Museo de las Culturas Populares de Chiapas (Museum of Popular Cultures of Chiapas) is located on Diego de Mazariego Street. It is mostly dedicated to the indigenous cultures of the state with the aim of recuperating, valuing and promoting knowledge of these cultures in Chiapas and beyond. The museum has exhibits of many of these cultures and also sponsors live events related to its mission as well.

…

Palenque

The municipality has a number of ecological features. The Gruta de San Cristóbal is one of a number of caves in the mountains around the city just off Federal Highway 190 heading towards Comitán. This particular cave was discovered by Vicente Kramsky in 1947.

The cave has only one entrance with lateral chambers. It has a total length of 10.2 km and a depth of 550 meters. The Rancho Nuevo cave has a path which extends 750 meters into the interior and is lit in various colors. Around the caves, there are campsites and horseback riding.

The municipality contains two ecological reserves called the Cerro Huitepec Private Reserve and the Rancho Nuevo Ecological Conservation Zone.

Another protected area is the El Arcotete Forest located 15 km northeast of the city. It contains a natural bridge which was part of an ancient cave that was worn away.

Palenque
Misol Ha
Canyon Sumidero

The city’s attraction for tourists has also led to a number making San Cristobal their permanent home, which has had an effect of the local culture, especially in the historic center. Many foreign residents have opened up restaurants with Italian, French, Thai, Indian, Chinese and more options, such as vegetarian available. An older foreign influence is the city’s noted cured meat tradition, which can be traced back to both the Spanish and the Germans. These are featured in a number of dishes including chalupas. Foreign influence can also be seen in the city’s nightlife which offers reggae, salsa, techno and more.

Traditional dishes are saffron tamales, sopa de pan, asado coleto, atole de granillo and a drink called posh made from sugar cane.

The city hosts an annual Amber Expo at the Centro de Convenciones Casa de Mazariegos. The event exhibits and sells amber and amber pieces from the area of the state.

Fireworks are common as there are many religious festivals which use them. Important celebrations include those dedicated to the Dulce Niño de Jesús, the Señor de Esquipulas, Saint Anthony, Corpus Christi, San Cristóbal and the Holy Family. This is in addition to the various neighborhood saint celebrations in their respective churches around town.

However, the most elaborate rituals are performed during Holy Week. Holy Week processions include both silent and chanting marchers. A number are dressed in pointed hoods and carry heavy platforms with religious figures. They go from house to house, stopping at those homes that have erected small shrines. There they say prayers and bless the house and its occupants before moving on. They finally come to rest in a gigantic open house where an inner shrine has been erected lit by thousands of candles, and where a large potluck supper takes place. All, even passersby, are welcome to partake. Passion plays depicting the crucifixion of Jesus are common events with one large one centered in the open plaza behind the municipal palace.

After dark, there is the Burning of Judas. The figures burned are plentiful and include, as well as Judas, government bureaucrats, church officials, army officers, US political figures, Spanish conquistadors, and popular celebrities. They are lit by local firemen who try to keep people back at a safe distance, but fireworks occasionally fall among the crowds anyway.

The Feria de la Primavera y la Paz (Spring and Peace Fair) runs concurrent with Holy Week, especially on Holy Saturday with music and costumes. It terminates with the burning of Judas. A queen is elected to be crowned the next day. Bullfights are held.

The Festival Cervantino Barroco is held each year in the historic center featuring invited artists from various parts of Mexico and abroad. It is held in various forums in the city and includes concerts, plays, exhibitions and conferences.

The most important manufactured goods produced in the city are jade, textiles and amber, although others such as ceramics, metal works, carved wood products, clothing and filigree jewelry can be found as well.

There is a large tianguis or open air market at Santo Domingo which specializes in selling these locally produced products.

San Cristóbal de las Casas is located 80 km from Tuxtla Gutiérrez on Highway 190.

It has an airport named Corazón de María 18 km outside the city proper.

The municipality has 193.17 km of highway, most of which is state highway connecting the city to Tuxtla Gutierrez and to points north such as Ocosingo and Palenque. There are also a number of rural roads (44.9 km) as well as roads maintained by the Secretarías de Obras Públicas, Desarrollo Rural, Defensa Nacional, and Comisión Nacional del Agua.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The sinkhole is part of a larger park called El Ocote Biosphere Reserve, located in the western part of the Mexican state of Chiapas, about 90 minutes from the state capital of Tuxtla Gutierrez.

It belongs to the municipality of Ocozocoautla de Espinoza, about 19 km over rough roads from the town center.

This part of Chiapas is dominated by the Zoque people, who call the area Coita, a Zoque word that means “place of rabbits”.

The nearest community to the sinkhole is Piedra Parada, which has about 500 residents.

The climate of the area is mostly warm and humid, with a rainy season from June to October, receiving an average of 1,500mm of precipitation per year. It is in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, at an altitude of about 820 meters above seal level. This area gets cold enough in the winter to need a light jacket.

Most of the vegetation of the area has been wiped out or severely degraded by agriculture, forestry and other human activity.

The Sima de las Cotorras belongs to a Karst topography system, based on the folding, fracturing and erosion of limestone. This particular system is defined its drainage system, with the La Venta River on the surface and the main underground river being El Paraíso. Despite its proximity to the Pacific, drainage is towards the Gulf of Mexico. Most of this ecological system is covered by the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve.

There are two main forces that shape the landcape. Tectonic forces from the movement of the North American plate over the Farallon and Cocos plates creates anticline folds, with a northeasterly orientation. The folding creates cracks in the relatively soft rock and water running above and below erode in and around these fractures. The two processes have created a number of formations including canyons, arches, caves, waterfalls, small pools of water and sinkholes. These same processes make the soil acidic and strewn with loose rock.

Major formations include the La Venta River Canyon, the Arch of Time (Arco del Tiempo) and El Aguacero Falls. The Sima de las Cotorras is only one of 38 sinkholes in the region and one of eight within 10km2. It is not even the largest of these, being only half the size of the Las Luchas sinkhole.

These sinkholes are vertical depressions formed by the cracking, erosion and collapse of limestone over thousands of years. The Sima de las Cotorras is 140 metres (460 ft) meters deep, and 160 metres (520 ft) in diameter, with a straight drop of 97 metres (318 ft) meters. The opening is elliptical, with the north and southwest rims elevated in relation to the rest. The low point of the rim is in the east. The process reveals the layers of rock, and about 70 metres (230 ft) meters down, stalactites and stalagmites can be seen among the layers from the surface. There are also caves within the sinkhole walls, which have also been produced by erosion. This type of sinkhole is similar to those found in the Yucatán, but general do not contain pooled water at the bottom.

Instead the interior of the sinkhole is home to a tropical forest, whose plant and animal life is distinct from that of the surrounding ecosystem.

El Ocote is home to a number of endangered species, especially birds such as the Aratinga holochlora, the Amazilia viridifons and the Oporornis tolmiei, as well as other receiving special protection such as the Eucometis penicillata, Lanio aurantius, Psarocolius montezuma and Colinus virginianus. Numbers and types of birds present depends on the time of year, due to migratory patterns.

The wider reserve serves as a buffer area for the microclimate of the Sima de las Cotorras. Outside the sinkhole and up to its rim, the climate is drier, mostly grassland/shrub from cattle grazing, and areas called lomería, rocky areas with limited growth, mostly shrubs, due to dense limestone. In some of the higher elevation there are still some forests. Around the sinkhole itself, there are many copal trees, Protium copal (Burseraceae), which gave the sinkhole its original name of Sima del Copal.

The interior of the sinkhole holds and preserves more moisture. From its bottom grows a tropical deciduous rainforest microsystem with broadleafed species such as cedar, mahogany, Fabaceas espinosa and Burseraceas baja, Manilkara zapota, scrubs of the Guaiacum family and more, with trees reaching as high as 30 meters tall. The plant species here are not found outside the sinkhole.

Common reserve fauna includes owls, foxes and coyotes, rabbits, opossums, badgers, squirrels, armadillos, Penelopina nigra, chachalaca and of course, parakeets. The park has over 80 bird species in 30 families. Eleven of these are migratory and three are endemic to the area. Seven bird species are classified as endangered by the Mexican government. Most of the bird species 35 of them, are found in the low deciduous rainforest of the sinkholes. These include species which are highly sensitive to human intrusion such as the Colinus virginianus, Caprimulgus vociferous, Amazilia candida and Ortalis vetula. A number of bird species have been found in the Sima de las Cotorras area but not in the larger El Ocote park, including Bubo virginianus, Amazilia viridifrons, Vireo philadelphicus, Sialia sialis, Passerina versicolor and Cacicus melanicterus.

The Sima’s most famous resident is the Aratinga holochola, the Mexican parrot, which is endangered. Chiapas is home to over 68% of Mexico’s parrots (Psittacidae). And many of Mexico’s parrot species are endangered, mostly due to shrinking habitat, along with the illegal pet trade and other exploitation of the animals.There are an estimated 3,000 parrots associated with the sinkhole and can be found there most of the year, with the exception November to January, when the weather is too cool for them. The forest of the sinkhole is also their nesting site. From the evening until the early morning, the parrots are congregated in the sinkhole forest, where the noise they make can be quite loud. The parrots’ noise will cease if a predator such as a falcon is seen nearby. The parrots leave the sinkhole to look for food, which include from mango trees in people’s backyards as far away as Tuxtla Gutierrez. They leave the sinkhole in groups, flying in circles on wind currents in order to leave and enter. Inside the sinkhole, the parrots are the most numerous kind of bird. Outside, it is dominated by small birds of the Tyrannidae family.

Evidence of human habitation in the area goes back at least 7,500 years, with evidence of hunter/gatherers. However, there were no major pre Hispanic settlements in this area.[6] The area of the park was first explored and academically documented in the mid 20th century, noting local caves and archeological finds such as pottery. But documentation still remains sparse especially in comparison to other such sites in Mexico.

The significant archeological find in and around the Sima de las Cotorras are cave paintings, arrowheads, and much later pottery shards, possibly Zoque. The most important of these are the cave paintings, which number about 75. On a rock outcropping on the north wall, there is a human figure with lance, and with a sun and moon above. One of the side caves has on its roof the outlines of hands made by blowing red ochre onto the wall. Other images include circles, spirals and animals. The appearance of cave painting in such a geological formation and especially so high up the sinkhole walls makes them a rarity, and the site is under consideration by UNESCO for protective status.

The El Ocote Biosphere Reserve was established in 1972, extendingover 8 hectares, protecting over a hundred species of birds, and dozens of mammals, reptiles and insects, some endangered. With the exception of the Sima de la Cotorras, the park has not been developed for tourism, and its formations are almost completely unknkown outside of their region. The other sinkholes in the area get no tourism activity at all. The tourism activity based on the flight of the parrots has made the sinkhole relatively famous and it is now better known as the “sinkhole of the parrots” rather than its official name.

Tourism activity here began with the establishment of the Sima de Cotorras Ecotourism Center in 1985 and the building of a road from the town of Ocozocoautla to the site. The center was established to provide alternative work for the local Zoque people. Today it is run by the Tzamanguimó cooperative, which consists of a number of familyes all from the nearby community of Piedra Parada.

The project is also registered with the federal government as an ecotourism site, with the aim of being sustainable, providing income for local residents with minimal impact. The group welcomes researchers as well as visitors onto the site. The main challenge has been how to take advantage of the site without damaging it. The ground is unstable and highly porous. Many underground cavities are still unknown, making building risky. The largest structure on the premises is the restaurant. Built near the rim, its site was chosen because of the stability of the rock, not because it was the most aesthetically pleasing place to put the structure. Waste disposal is a main issue because of the threat of groundwater contamination, prompting several composting activities. Bringing water, electricity and more are also challenges.

By far the main attraction of the site are the parrots that fly in and out of sinkhole each day, generally leaving in the early morning and returning at night. It is also possible to rappel to the bottom of the sinkhole, as well as explore local caves and hike both in and around the sinkhole.

Where possible constructions are based on local materials to allow them to blend into the local environment. Paving and path construction is based on local rock. Pre Hispanic architecture formed the basis of the buildings on the site, including the rock foundation seen on the restaurant building. The Center has eight cabins for up to five persons each, a camping area and tours with local guides.

It has eight cabins which can house five people each. It current has a restaurant, several cabins to house multiple people, a camping área, a path around the rim of the sinkhole, rapelling and tours to see the cave paintings and the rainforest that covers the sinkhole’s floor.

The Center has provided an alternative source of work other than agriculture and for some, a means for income when before they had none. Despite this, the project has not been claimed as a great success. According to theses done at the Universidad Intercultural de Chiapas, the tourism possibilities here have not been fully exploited. As of 2016, only about 10 to 15 people per day visit the site. Most visitors come by their own cars or through local ecoaventure tourism agencies. Most tourists are between 41-60 years of age, followed by the 31-40 age bracket and those in the 18-30 year bracket. About half come from the state capital of Tuxtla Gutierrez, with about 13% from Mexico City, 12.5 from other parts of Mexico. Only about 2 percent are foreigners.

The main problems for the site are the lack of promotion and poor access. The roads leading to the site are very poor, especially the last ten km, and signage is poor or non-existent. The park is difficult to access for those with disabilities. Most visitors learn of the site through word-of-mouth, with some from television and much fewer from other media. The lack of services means that those who do come do not stay for long. Two thirds come only to see the parrots, some will stay and eat at the restaurant, but very few stay the night.

The project over the years has received intermittent support from various government institutuions such as PEMEX, the Secretary of Tourism, SEMARNAT and the Comision Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, in areas such as finance, customer service and construction. But these interventions have not always been helpful, with functionaries using technical jargon and dismissing local knowledge of the area. Changes in political parties has led to varying attitudes towards the project and its ecological focus, with errors being made such as cutting down trees to make way for cement electrical poles and the construction on non-composting toilets.

At its height, the Center generated about 80 to 100 jobs directly, but since the tourist demand has declined. The project is specifically geared to keep young people in the area, but they have not shown sufficient interest in its continuation. Most members of the cooperative are between 50 and 80 years of age. Only about 30% of the local population recognizes the area’s intangible value, but 80% favor efforts to make the area better known.[6] Even with sufficient interest and promotion, the area is not suited for large-scale tourism. One reason is the need to keep ecological concerns first and the other is that alternative and eco-tourism are not major attractions for most Mexicans.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The Sumidero Canyon was formed by cracks in the earth’s crust along with erosion by the Grijalva River. The process of its formation began about 35 million years ago, making the Sumidero contemporary with the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River.

The Grijalva is the main water system in the area, beginning in the Cuchumatanes in neighboring Guatemala. The river then flows through Chiapas, including the 13-km length of the canyon, from south to north, then on to Tabasco before it empties into the Usumacinta River.

This river basin is one of the two most important in Chiapas, and one of the most important in Mexico with a total river length of approximately 766 km, draining an area of 7,940 sq km, with an average flow of about forty million cubic meters.

In addition to the Grijalva, there are other flows of water in the area in and around the canyon, many of which are seasonal. These consist of streams, some of which form waterfalls on the canyon’s sides, and underground movements that have created caves and karst formations. The last important water formation in the area is the manmade reservoir of the Chicoasén Dam.

The canyon proper is deep and narrow, characterized by vertical walls. As the gap changes direction as much as 90 degrees in places, it separates the Meseta de las Animas mesa in the west from the Meseta de Ixtapa mesa in the east.

The width of the canyon varies from 1 to 2 km.

Most of the canyon’s walls are between 200 and 700 m high, reaching 1,000 m at their highest point. These walls expose a long process of disturbance in the Earth’s crust with layers of limestone from the Upper Mesozoic, which contain fossils of marine creatures.

During the Mesocretac Period, there was an elevation of the ocean floor which formed much of the mountains of the area.

Despite its biological, ecological, and cultural diversity, there have been few studies performed in the parking area. For this reason, there is a lack of information about species, habitats, and water flow. There is also relatively little information about how human activities affect the park.

As the park is located in the Central Valley of Chiapas and borders the Northern Mountains region, altitudes vary from approximately 600 meters above sea level in the municipality of Chiapa de Corzo to 1,200 meters above sea level at the El Roblar lookout point.

This geography produces a channel for airflow from northwest to southeast as well as three main climates based on the Köeppen system as modified for Mexico. These are hot and dry (where airflow is blocked), semi-hot and humid, and hot and humid.

The average rainfall for the park is about 1,000 mm during the rainy season from May to October and 200 mm during the dry season from November to April. The average annual temperature is 26 °C. The rugged terrain also forms a number of microclimates.

Most of the park’s vegetation, especially around the canyon, is dense tropical rainforest.

Most species found in the park are members of the Fabaceae family with 59 species and the Asteraceae family with 25 species, which reflects the abundance of these families statewide.

Other important families include the Orchidaceae and Euphorbiaceae, each with 22 species, the Convolvulaceae family with 17 species, and the Cactaceae with 11 species. 122 species are considered valuable as ornamental plants with 46 having medicinal uses and 31 species valuable for logging. These mostly come from rainforest areas.

The rainforest vegetation is mostly deciduous, shedding leaves in the dry season. However, there are perennial rainforests, forests of pine and oak, grasslands (mostly induced), and areas with secondary vegetation.

The three main vegetation classifications are low-height rainforest, medium-height rainforest (as per the size of the trees), pine-oak forest, and meadows.

Medium-height deciduous rainforest is mostly located on either side of the canyon, in the north and east of the part towards San Fernando and in the Cañada Muñiz at altitudes of between 150 and 1250 masl. It is mostly found in areas with basalt or granite rock and where there are lime deposits, covering an area of 11,382 hectares (28,130 acres) in total.

While many plants here lose leaves in the dry season, there are some that retain them year-round. Maximum height of trees varies between 25 and 30 meters.

The density of the tree cover in these areas is enough to lower temperatures on the ground in the summer rainy season due to the maximum foliage which occurs at this time.

The tree cover is composed of the following species: breadnut, guanacaste, totoposte, jocotillo, cedar , cuaulote blanco, hormiguillo, chicozapote, tempisque and various types of amate fig trees.

Under the tree cover, there is significant plant diversity, including palms and areas. Epiphytes (air plants) are abundant as well, along with orchids, Bromeliaceae, and cacti. Cactus are primarily found on the vertical walls of the canyon and belong to the Acanthocereus family.

In the 1970s, tree areas in a good state of conservation amounted to 3,818 hectares or 17.72% of the total land area.

From 1988 to 1993, this amount was reduced to 1,107 hectares or 5.35%. From 1990 to 2000, it is estimated that eight percent of the remaining forests and 38% of the rainforests were damaged.

Many of the areas in good condition are broken up by disturbed areas. Most of the damage is due to illegal logging and the clearing of land for pasture or agriculture.

Medium-height perennial rainforest (also known as evergreen cloud forest) exists only in small dispersed patches, mostly on the sides of the canyon in contact with the Grijalva River.

Many of these patches are less than one hectare in size, as they are located on small areas of flat land at altitudes between 1000 and 2,500 masl. The soils are rich in undecomposed plant matter which holds moisture.

The low-height deciduous rainforest is mostly found around the La Ceiba and La Coyota lookout points in the south and southeast sections of the park, with some in the east towards the La Chacona Cañada.

These occupy a territory of 4,404 hectares in the park. Tree heights extend from four to ten meters with some as high as 15 meters.

Non-tree species are not as common and mostly consist of succulent species such as Agave, Opuntia, Stenocereus, and Cephalocereus. Other important species include Alvaradoa amorphous, Bursera simaruba, Ceiba acuminate, Bursera bipinnate, Bursera excels, Cochlospermum vitifolium, Haematoxylon brasiletto, Piscidia piscipula, Swietenia humilis, Acacia collinsii, and Pseudobombax ellipticum.

Pine-oak forests exist in the northwest of the park in the highest altitudes, covering about 87 hectares. They are part of the same type of forest found in the Soyaló region it is adjacent to.

They are found at an altitude of 1,200 masl and above in areas that receive precipitation of about 1500 mm annually.

The most common species is the oak Quercus conspersa, often found mixed with the two kinds of rainforest found in the park. Air plants are common here as well as bromeliads, orchids and plants from the Maxillaria, Lycaste, Cattleya and Laelia groups.

Grassland is not naturally occurring but rather exists due to human activities such as farming and livestock raising. It is seen on the north and south sides of the canyon and is usually associated with secondary vegetation such as Tecoma stans, Gliricidia sepium, Plumeria rubra, and Acacia collinsii, occupying an area of 6,539 hectares in the park.

Throughout the history of the area, especially since it was definitively explored in the 1960s, the area’s wildlife diversity has been severely negatively impacted by human encroachment in the form of settlements, agriculture, and hunting.

However, since the federal park was established in the 1980s, wildlife diversity has increased.

In 1986, the federal Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos (SARH) reported a total of ninety species of vertebrates divided into four species of fish, one amphibian, 14 reptiles, 26 birds, and 40 mammals.

A 2005 study indicates 308 species with four species of fish, 15 amphibians, 195 birds, and 53 mammals. Between these two, there have been a number of other studies which also show the growth of the number of wildlife species in the park.

Information about fish species is scarce but at least four protected species have been detected.

According to a CONANP study in 2007, there are 12 species of reptile here under protection, including the river crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), and one threatened species, the Yucatán banded gecko (Coleonyx elegans).

Birds are the most common type of animal in the park, with about 195 species documented. Six of these species are threatened and 17 are subject to special protection. One threatened bird species in the park is the great curassow (Crax rubra).

Relatively abundant species include Actitus macularia, Dendrocygna autumnalis, Egretta caerulea, Egretta thula, Tachybaptus dominicus and Coragyps atratus, all of which are associated with bodies of water.

There have been 53 species of mammals detected recently in the park, of which two are considered threatened, two are in danger, and two subjects to special protection.

Endangered and threatened species include the spider monkey, jaguarundi, ocelot, lowland paca, white-tailed deer, anteater, and buzzard (Sarcoramphus papa). The most abundant species include the bat Artibeus Jamaicensis and the rat Peromyscus Mexicanus.

The history of the area is connected to the Chiapa people, who occupied the Central Valley area before the arrival of the Spanish.

The origin of these people is not known, but theories have them migrating north from Nicaragua or even Paraguay.

Their main settlement was in Chiapa de Corzo near the canyon, with a fortified area in the higher areas of the canyon for protection from invasions.

The Chiapa fiercely resisted Spanish conquest and were not subdued until the arrival of Diego de Mazariegos in 1528.

Their last refuge was in the fortified area, now known as the archeological site of the Ruins of Berlin. Here the last of the Chiapa held out from 1528 to 1535 after the Spanish took over the main city.

Legend states that when this last fortification fell, the remaining Chiapa committed collective suicide by jumping into the canyon. Since then, the canyon has served as a boundary marker between the Zoque and Tzotzil peoples.

Until the 20th century, the canyon area was relatively unexplored.

In 1895, three Frenchmen attempted to explore the canyon but were drowned in the river.

An American came in 1932 but also perished.

This gave rise to legends about witchcraft in the area as well as the ferocity of the area’s crocodiles.

In 1960, an expedition of soldiers from the Mexican army nicknamed the “red handkerchiefs” succeeded in crossing through the canyon by boat over twenty km. This opened up the canyon to local exploration and exploitation, including rudimentary tourism and the hunting of crocodiles and other native fauna.

There has been little archaeological work done in the area. The main site is called the Ruins of Berlin, named after German explorer Heinrich Berlin, who visited the area in 1946 and named the area “Sumidero”.

This site is located seven km from the Belisario Domínguez Bridge in Tuxtla on the edge of the river. It covers an area of 467 by 60 meters, bounded by small mounds surrounding patios.

The original description of the site was undertaken in 1923 and 1932 by Becerra, who called it Chiapa Viejo, and stated it was the capital of the Chiapa people. However, Remesal in 1966 determined it was a secondary site.

The last major survey was done in 1976 by Alejandro Martínez, discovering that there are 24 individual sites of which nine are mounds and fifteen are caves. One of these contains cave paintings which indicate that the area has been occupied since at least the very early Pre Classic period.

The interior of the canyon has thirty rapids, five waterfalls, three beaches, two freshwater springs, and a cofferdam three meters wide.

The canyon contains endangered and threatened species such as the Central American river turtle and the American crocodile, which can be seen on the riverbanks.

The walls of the canyon contain numerous small caves, rock formations, and other notable features.

The best-known of the area’s caves is the Cueva de Colores (“Cave of Colors”). This cave gets its name from the filtration of magnesium, potassium, and other minerals which form colors on the walls, especially shades of pink. It contains an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe inside usually surrounded by fresh flowers and burning candles left by visitors.

The Cueva de Silencio (“Cave of Silence”) is so named because of a lack of echo or any other kind of resonance in its interior.

In another small cave, there is a stalactite called the Caballito de Mar or “Seahorse” after its shape.

Of the various seasonal waterfalls, the best known is the Árbol de Navidad (“Christmas Tree”). The “branches” of the Árbol are made by deposits from the waterfall which have been covered in moss. During the rainy season, when the waterfall is active, the water and the light change the colors of the “branches” and make the formation stand out.

The park was a candidate in 2009 as one of the Seven New Natural Wonders of the World.

Establishment of the park

The Sumidero Canyon National Park has its origins in a Chiapas state decree issued in 1972, which made the area around the canyon an ecological reserve to preserve its geology, history, and wildlife and to allow for scientific study. For similar reasons, the park was taken over and enlarged to 21,789 hectares by the federal government in 1980. Most private landholders in the area were compensated for their lands, but not all resident persons or businesses were evicted. Since that time, the park has been under the administration of various agencies such as SAHOP, SEDUE, and SEMARNAP, with the current managers being the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas and the Secretaría de Educación Pública. In 2004, the park came under the protection of the Ramsar Convention due to the importance of its ecology and water systems. It was also named a Región Prioritaria Terrestre and an Área de Importancia para la Conservación de las Aves by the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) in 2000. In 2005 and 2006, this agency enlarged the park again with the expropriation of lands in the municipalities of San Fernando and Tuxtla Gutiérrez, adding a total of 1,660 hectares (4,100 acres). It remains, however, smaller than most other national parks in Mexico.

The center of the park is the Sumidero Canyon and the Grijalva River that runs from south to north through it. The park’s borders on this river are marked by the Belisario Domínguez Bridge, over which the Pan-American Highway runs, in the south and the Chicoasén Dam, 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the north. The rest of the park’s borders extend into the municipalities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Osumacinta and San Fernando. This territory is mostly located in the Central Valley region of the state. The park is open 365 days a year. The park is divided into four sections by direction: the northwest includes medium-height, somewhat deciduous rainforest as well as some lowland rainforest and grassland, found in the municipalities of Osumacinta and San Fernando; the western section has similar vegetation, and is located entirely in San Fernando; the eastern section has forests of pine as well as medium-height semi-deciduous rainforest and grasslands, and is found in Chiapa de Corzo; and the southeast has most of the sides of the canyon itself and a navigable section of the Grijalva River, but only remnants of medium-height rainforest and pachycaulous vegetation. The main land access into the park is from Tuxtla Gutiérrez north through Osumacinta then past the Chicoasén Dam. Another access point is from Chiapa de Corzo by boat from the Cahuaré Docks. As the main attraction of the park is the canyon, several lookout points have been constructed on various parts of the rim. La Ceiba is closest to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, only 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away. The Los Chiapas point is near where the canyon’s walls rise highest from the river below, where according to legend, a number of Chiapa people preferred to commit suicide by jumping rather than submit to Spanish domination. This lookout also has a restaurant.

Conservation issues

The most important conservation issue in the park is the contamination of the Grijalva River, which passes through the Sumidero Canyon proper. However, other threats to the park include human encroachment and other human activities. An estimated 1500 to 2000 hectares, or about six percent of the park total, have been encroached upon, mostly by illegal human settlements next to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez since the park was established. It is estimated that about 15,000 people live within the park’s borders. Most of these illegal constructions belong to the very poor who have migrated to the city from elsewhere. The demand for living space has created an industry of illegal subdivisions which are then sold without the proper title to victims. Three of the main neighborhoods to develop in this way are the Patria Nueva Alta, Arroyo Blanco, La Esperanza and Las Granjas. The encroachment is a result of the fast population growth of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Chiapa de Corzo. The growth of these areas has led to land ownership disputes, loss of wild habitat and deforestation. In 2002, the federal and state government signed an accord to remove illegal human settlements and work to prevent further encroachment. Operations to evict illegal settlers have been carried out such as a 2005 operation which evicted about one hundred people and others that have prevented new settlements from getting established. However, the encroachment of human settlements into the park from the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez has been so damaging that a 2007 report states that there is no other alternative than to deregulate this section of the park and work to prevent further incursion. However, the situation has not been helped by the fact that there are disputes over the boundaries of the park as decreed in 1980. Since 2009, there have been further efforts by park management to stop the advancement of these illegal settlements as well. Despite this, a number of areas in the park are well-conserved, mostly due to the very rugged terrain.

In addition to the illegal settlements, there are legal settlements and operations which affect the park. There are eight ejidos which border the parks and whose activities directly affect it: San Antonio Zaragoza, Venustiano Carranza, Francisco Sarabia, Gabriel Esquinca, Benito Juárez, Osumacinta, El Palmar, 16 de Septiembre and Nuevo Bochil. Established before the park, there are still five ejidos and three human settlements established within, Libertad Campesina (population 495), Nueva Esperanza (139), La Unión (329), El Paraíso (134), Tierra Colorada (199), La Candelaria / Triunfo Agrarista (631). As of 2005, the total population within the park’s borders was 1927. Because of human activity, this park is one of the most susceptible to wildfires, and the most damaged by such in Mexico from 2009 to 2011. Many of these were started by human activity in or near the park such as one fire set on a nearby farm in May 2011.

In addition to this, there are lime and other extraction operations within the park’s borders. They exist legally because they had been there well before the park was established. However, these operations have destroyed about 2,600 hectares. These operations produce noise, smoke, dust and small tremblers from explosions used to extract the minerals. Much of the environment damage come from runoff from mining waste which winds up in the Grijalva River. However the dust and smoke have produced a distinct white coating on surrounding flora.

Via the Grijalva River, the wastewater of about 552,000 people in seventeen municipalities finds its way through the canyon according to park director Edda González del Castilla, with most coming from Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Berriozábal and Chicoasén . Much of the sewage comes into the Grijalva via the Sabinal River, which carries most of the waste water of the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In addition, trash and raw sewage makes its way into the river from the various tributary streams. Agricultural waste comes from the farms that line the river and its tributaries.

The most obvious pollution is garbage, especially plastic containers, which mostly comes from area homes and businesses tossed onto the ground or in streams, especially from Chiapa de Corzo and Tuxtla Gutiérrez due to the lack of environmental awareness according to Conanp. The quantity of this trash reaches its height during the rainy season, when runoff and swollen streams can carry more of it into the Grijalva. While bottles and other plastic are what the casual visitor generally notices, other indicators include the overgrowth of water lilies (due to high levels of fecal matter) and dead animals. However, this accounts for only about five percent of the total tonnage of waste that comes into the river each year. Somewhere between 80 and 90% of the waste solids found in the river is branches, wood, rocks, sediment and other debris from legal and illegal logging, which cause deforestation . These mostly come into the river during the rainy season, especially from the Villa Flores and Villa Corzo municipalities. Only a small part of the solid waste is visible on the surface of the water, most is hidden underneath.

As the solids flow along the Grijalva, they are constricted by the narrow channel of the canyon and then by the presence of the Chicoasén Dam. This is particularly true at a point called “El Tapón” (The Plug), where two currents of water meet just before the reservoir back up of water from the Dam.

It is estimated that about 5000 tons of trash accumulate each year, and the river is considered to be one of the five most polluted in Mexico. 3700 tons of solids were extracted from the canyon area in 2010 alone. Many fish have died off or have developed abnormally due to contamination by fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals. This threatens the native American crocodiles as the agrochemicals kill off and poison the fish they need to eat. In May 2011, the Fédération Internationale de Natation decided cancel its annual swim marathon in the canyon as they claimed that pollution levels in the river posed a risk to swimmers’ health. The Comisión Nacional del Agua and the government of Chiapas disputed this, presenting their own test results stating that levels were below such levels.

There are year-round and seasonal efforts to clean the river within the canyon and the area just upstream from it. Much of the daily effort is undertaken by workers with the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP) and the Secretariat of Tourism in Chiapas, which extract twelve tons of garbage from the Grijalva river each day. Most of the season cleanup coincides with the rainy season, especially in September and October, when rains are heaviest. This seasonal effort has included local police, civil protections agencies, social organization, the army and individual volunteers. Efforts can involve up to 600 people at a time using 32 boats from four of the tourist cooperatives. During the annual campaign to clean the canyon in 2005 more than 60,000 tons of trash was removed. Generally, about forty tons of garbage is collected each day during these campaigns.

While the cleanup efforts have improved the situation in the canyon, the garbage reaccumulates especially during the rainy season. Part of the price that tourists pay for boat rides into the canyon pays for cleanup efforts, but the boat operators state that the canyon remains filled with trash. Conanp also states that cleanup efforts are insufficient. Mexico’s federal environmental agency, the Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Semarnat) states that it cannot get involved in the situation as it is the municipalities that have the responsibility for disposing of trash appropriately. However, many of these local governments do not have landfills or the separation of recyclables.

The scenery of the canyon has become a major tourist attraction for the state, with developments for eco tourism and extreme sports. The navigable part of the Grijalva River is mostly used to ferry visitors into the canyon area. The park has six lookout points accessible by land called La Ceiba, La Coyota, El Roblar, Tepehuaje, Los Chiapas and Manos. In the rainy season, tourism is enhanced by the activity of waterfalls such as the Árbol de Navidad, Cueva del Hombre, Cueva del Silencio, Cueva de Colón, Cueva de Colores and Cueva del Suspiro. A lesser known attraction is the archeological site called the Ruins of Berlin. The most important economic activity in the canyon is ecotourism. Most of the visitors are Mexicans. Weekends are busiest with local and regional visitors to bike, swim, hike, camp and picnic.

The canyon is the second most visited site in Chiapas, after Palenque. The park is visited annually by 300,000 people, about 80% of whom are from Mexico and the rest from abroad. During vacation times, the park may be visited by anywhere from 1,000 to 7,000 people per day, who either enter by car to go to the lookout points or by boat from Chiapa de Corzo. Entrance and boating fees can generate about 70,000 pesos per day for clean-up efforts. The number of visitors to the park hit a peak in 2003 with about 196,500.

Commercial activity in the park is limited to those which serve tourists, sales of food and Mexican handcrafts and folk art. Tour operators are organized into cooperatives, with food and craft vendors working independently. These merchants must receive an annual permit in order to operate within the park’s borders. The most important of these businesses are the boats which ferry people through the canyon along the Grijalva River. Most of these boat tours operate out of Chiapa de Corzo and run along the river to the Chicoasén Dam for a distance of about 30 kilometres (19 mi). Chiapa de Corzo has two main docks for this activity. The largest and oldest is called Cahuare, with paved areas and a restaurant; the second smaller one also has restaurants and a swimming area as well. These two docks host six tour cooperatives, with about 120 boats that can hold between ten and forty passengers each. As they take visitors from Chiapa de Corzo or Tuxtla Gutiérrez through the canyon and to the dam, they provide environmental, historical and cultural information. These are the most organized tourist activities in the park.

A spate of accidents involving these boats occurred from late 2009 to early 2010, claiming the lives of six tourists and hurt sixty two others. The accidents occurred on decrepit boats, many of which were operating without permission with underage or unlicensed crew members. There were no ambulance boats and no first aid services on shore. Two of the cooperatives, Ángel Albino Corzo and Nandiume were suspended and fined for the accidents, taking about sixty boats out of operation. These boating accidents caused significant problems for the tourism industry.

For those who choose to see the canyon from the lookout points above, there are restaurants and other food service places as well as camping and picnicking facilities.

The other two attractions of the park are general ecotourism and extreme sports. The park has hiking paths and sports fishing is allowed sporadically by permit. There are some locations that rent kayaks and other boats. The Amikúu Ecological Park is located within the canyon area, which is accessible by boat from Chiapa de Corzo. The park is divided into three parts; Discover the Canyon, Colors of Chiapas, and Area of Adventure. The first is located in the dock area, with a demonstration of the history of the canyon and a video of its geological formation. There is also a souvenir shop here. The interior of the park contains a 300 meter long zip line. Colors of Chiapas is a small museum which exhibits the traditional dress and native musical instruments of the state’s indigenous peoples. The Area of Adventure takes visitors on a tour of the rainforest area, which includes a suspension bridge. It also has a herpetarium, an aviary and enclosure for jaguars and one for crocodiles. The park was opened in 2009 at an initial cost of 120 million pesos.

Extreme sports include mountain biking, rappelling, spelunking and more. Rappelling allows for access to many of the canyon’s small caves which are not accessible any other way. The dam area has recreational fishing with an annual tournament. One major annual event is the Copa Mundo Fino swimming marathon. An Australian base jumper plunged to his death in 2006 after jumping off an 800-meter cliff in the canyon. The accident occurred during a sanctioned event sponsored by an energy drink maker with jumpers from Australia, the U.S., Europe and Mexico.

At the northern end of the Sumidero Canyon is the Chicoasén Dam, formally called the Manuel M. Torres Dam, which is one of the number of dams that have been built along the Grijalva River for water storage and the generation of hydroelectric power. This dam and its reservoir is considered to be part of the Sumidero Canyon system. The Sumidero Canyon National Park is defined on the north end of the river by this dam and the Belisario Domínguez Bridge on the south. The dam was constructed between 1974 and 1980. The reservoir covers an average of 2,193 hectares, and the complex employs about 600 workers.

The Chicoasén Dam produces electricity and manages the flow of the Grijalva river along with the Hondo River and the Muñiz, El Jardín and El Cacao streams, which converge to form the Usumacinta River. This reservoir is one of the most important in the country. The hydroelectric station is also one of the most important in the country with thirty generators with the potential to generate 3,928.48 megawatts, with an average of 5,749.99 gigawatts per hour. This is just over thirty percent of all hydroelectric energy produced in Mexico.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The municipality stretches over a section of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and west onto the coastal plain to the Pacific with an average altitude of 170 meters above sea level.

The main ecosystems in the municipality include low-growth rainforest, medium-growth rainforest, and oak-pine forests.

Many of these forest areas have been over-exploited with significant loss of both plant and animal life. Ecological reserves include El Cabildo-Amatán, El Gancho-Murillo, and part of the Tacaná Volcano.

The climate varies by altitude from hot in the low coastal areas to temperate in the higher elevations. There is a small area with a cold climate as part of the Tacaná Volcano. Precipitation also varies by altitude.

The climate of the city area is hot and humid most of the year.

The area is one of the rainiest in the world with annual rainfall of about 3,900mm drained by a number of rivers and streams that flow from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas over the coastal plain to the Pacific Ocean.

The main rivers are the Huehuetán, the Coatán, and the Cuilco. There are eighty-two communities considered to be at high risk of natural disasters due to flooding of rivers and insufficient roadways to evacuate.

Fifty-two of these are located on the riverbanks of three rivers: Coatán, Texcuyuapan, and Cahoacán. Much of the flood control of the area was damaged or destroyed by Hurricane Stan in 2005.

The city of Tapachula is the capital of the Chiapas region of Soconusco with the nickname the “Pearl of the Soconusco”.

The name “Tapachula” comes from Nahuatl and means “between the waters” due to the area’s frequent flooding. It is located on a low-lying coastal plain with various small rivers about 120 meters above sea level.

The name comes from the Nahuatl phrase “Tapachollan” which means ”between the waters”. The official name of the city was changed to “Tapachula de Córdova y Ordóñez” in 1997 in honor of priest Fray Matías de Córdova y Ordóñez.

The first people to settle in the area migrated from the south of Central America and most likely are the ancestors of today’s Mame people. The Olmecs dominated the area, driving many Mames to migrate back south.

The Toltecs arrived next but never completely subjugated the native peoples.

However, these conquests resulted in the Mames never developing a major civilization. The city of Tapachula was founded as a tribute collection center for the Aztecs in 1486 by a military leader named Tiltototl, sent by Ahuziotl to conquer the Soconusco.

The Soconusco region has produced cacao since 2000 BC. After the Spanish conquest, it was administered under the Kingdom of Guatemala. This region was larger than it is today, with the very south of the old extension now part of Guatemala.

As such, Tapachula became a border area, first among the Spanish colonial authorities of New Spain, Chiapas, and the Captaincy General of Guatemala. For example, when the Diocese of Chiapas was created in 1539, it included the Tapachula area.

However, the Soconusco region had political differences with all of these authorities at one time or another. Tapachula became the capital of the Soconusco region in 1794, replacing Escuintla.

In 1809 Tapachula protested the high rate of taxation to Spanish authorities to no avail. During the war, it was officially declared a town in 1813, and a parish in 1818, with the San Agustín parish church established in 1819.

At the end of the War of Independence, Tapachula, as the capital of the Soconusco, declared its own independence from Spain and Guatemala in 1821, and away from Mexico in 1824.

However, for most of the rest of the 19th century, the Soconusco would be disputed territory between Mexico (as part of Chiapas) and Guatemala, until a final border was drawn between the two countries in 1888.

Mexican president Antonio López de Santa Anna declared Tapachula a city as he fought to force the region back under Mexican control. The city was occupied by French troops during the French Intervention in Mexico until 1865 when they were expelled by Sebastián Escobar.

The current municipality was created in 1915, with Tapachula as the governing entity. It was declared the provisional capital of Chiapas by forces loyal to Victoriano Huerta in 1924.

The first air route to the city was established in 1929, connecting it with Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Mexico City.

Tapachula became a diocese separate from Chiapas in 1957 covering the entire Chiapas coast area.

It was reaffirmed as the capital of the Soconusco region in 1983.

In 1984, a coat of arms was chosen for the city, designed by Edgar José Cabrera Arriaga.

The growth of the city and its economy has presented problems in the early 21st century.

The city during this time has grown outward, surrounding industrial structures such as petroleum storage facilities belonging to PEMEX and a terminal of the Chiapas-Mayab railroad.

This raised questions of safety until both were moved further outside of the city limits in 2011 (PEMEX is still inside the city, it’s never been moved outside of the city).

Tapachula is Mexico’s main border city with Guatemala on the Pacific coast area even though it is located some kilometers away from the border proper. The main commercial border crossing is in Ciudad Hidalgo about forty kilometers away.

Nonetheless, it is the principal port for the crossing of goods and people between Mexico and Central America, making it economically and socially similar to cities on the US southern border such as Laredo, Texas.

The flow of goods through the area as well as being the economic center of the rich agricultural region of the Soconusco makes Tapachula one of the most important economically for Chiapas with one of the highest per capita incomes in the state.

As its wealth is relatively recent, since the late 19th century, Tapachula is mostly a modern city.

Like border cities in the United States, Tapachula and other communities in the area have problems with illegal immigration, drug traffic, and violence, with most of the illegal border crossers coming from Central America.

This has led to a strong and very visible police presence in the city along with special security measures for major events such as the Feria Internacional Tapachula.

The city has had a strong Chinese presence since around 1900 when a number of people from China came to work in the coffee plantations of the area. Most of the descendants of these first immigrants have since dispersed throughout the Soconusco region, but there is still Asian immigration to Tapachula to this day.

Most modern immigrants work in commerce rather than in agriculture.

The most visible evidence of Asian presence is the significant number of Chinese and other Asian restaurants in the city, especially in the downtown. A number of businesses selling Chinese food and imported items are concentrated in the San Juan market.

The Casa de la Comunidad China (Chinese Community House) is located Cuarta Avenida Sur. The structure is dedicated to education about Chinese culture and was reopened in 2012 after renovations.

Tapachula signed a sister city agreement with Dongying, China in 2011.

Most of the city’s monumental structures in the historic center were built in the first decades of the 20th century, although there are a number of significant large homes near this same area built in the 1960s in Art Deco style such as the La Portaviandas building.

Outside the city downtown, the structures just about all date from the latter 20th century on due to recent growth.

The historic center is marked by a large, tree-lined plaza called Parque Miguel Hidalgo. The center of this plaza contains an octagon kiosk with Baroque ironwork with some Moorish influence.

Parque Miguel Hidalgo is the center of the city surrounded by the old and new municipal palaces, the Perez Porta, and the Teatro al Aire Libre (Open Air Theater), which often has marimba concerts.

The main monumental buildings of the area surround this plaza and include the old and new municipal palaces, the Perez Portal, and the Teatro al Aire Libre (Open Air Theater).

The San Agustín parish church dates from the 18th century, established to honor the patron saint of the city, Augustine. It is a simple construction with a red Spanish tile roof, supported by wood beams.

The facade is a simple Neoclassical with six Ionic order columns, three on each side of the entrance, joined by false arches. The top of the facade has two bell towers. This design is based on the Teopisca church.

The church became a cathedral in 1958, shortly after the Tapachula diocese was established but that status has since been ceded to the San José Cathedral, consecrated in 2009.

The Soconusco Archeological Museum faces Parque Hidalgo. This building houses a number of pieces from the various archeological sites of the region, especially Izapa and several coastal sites. One special piece is a skull covered in gold and incrusted with turquoise.

Another is a stele called Number 25, because of the quality of its engravings.

The Casa de Cultura was built in 1929 as the municipal palace when the city was prosperous because of the surrounding coffee plantations. Although the style is Art Deco, the facade is decorated with Oaxacan-style fretwork, images of Aztec warriors, and stylized serpents along with the Mexican and state coats of arms.

Today, the building functions as a cultural center for the city.

The municipal cemetery is notable as a testament to the immigrant past of the area, with gravestones with German names and Chinese characters. The best examples of both date from the late 19th to early 20th century.

One of Tapachula’s most famous natives is the actress and singer Bibi Gaytan, who first achieved stardom in the 1990s.

There are 578.84 kilometers of highway most of which are rural roads maintained by state and federal authorities. The main highway in the area is Federal Highway 200 which follows the coastline of Chiapas.

Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants, an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honor time. However, this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo, appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used for the kings of Toniná, k’uhul po’ ajaw (Divine Lord of Po). A Maya rebellion in Colonial times, in 1558, featured a group called the po’ winikob’ (People of Po). Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records. Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts, Popo may represent the original name of the city.

Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres (2,600 to 3,000 ft) above mean sea level in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico, some 40 miles (64 km) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque, Toniná’s greatest rival throughout its recorded history. Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Río Jataté, one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley.

Early Classic

Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence, although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction. Due to this, early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site. An 8th-century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217, although it only mentions his title, not his name.

Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments, the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514. A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th-century stela, which describes him acceding to the throne in 568.

The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha, located 72 kilometres (45 mi) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River, the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573.

Late Classic

K’inich Hix Chapat

Toniná’s history comes into focus in the Late Classic, when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts. In 633 K’inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign, although he was probably enthroned in 595. The last mention of K’inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone.

Ruler 2

Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in 668. His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments. Ruler 2 established the use of in-the-round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná. A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound, one of them is identified as a lord from Annak’, an as yet unidentified site. His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K’inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687, as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city, an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice.

K’inich B’aaknal Chaak

K’inich B’aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688, twenty years after Ruler 2, and reigned for twenty-seven years. During his reign he restored Toniná’s power with a number of military victories over Palenque, and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power. Ballcourt 1, the larger of Toniná’s two ballcourts, was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city’s arch-rival. The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives, all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region. The date of the king’s death is unknown.

Ruler 4

Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age. Three years later, in 711, while Ruler 4 was still a child, Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque. The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region. The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten-year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city, during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage. Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721. A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul, one of the two Maya “superpowers”.

K’inich Ich’aak Chapat

Ruler 4 was succeeded by K’inich Ich’aak Chapat in 723. Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras, a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River, now in Guatemala. A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K’inich B’aaknal Chaak. The mother of K’inich Ich’aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K’awiil and his father may well have been K’inich B’aaknal Chaak himself. The reign of K’inich Ich’aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives, although the reason for this is unknown.

Later rulers

Little is known of the next two rulers, Ruler 6 is named as K’inich Tuun Chapat, he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762. A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign, however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals. He was succeeded by Ruler 7, about whom even less is known. Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle.

Ruler 7 has been identified as the mysterious Lady K’awil, known from a fragmentary text on an altar disc which records her death in 774.

In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K’ak’, a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power.

Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná. He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806, including the defeat of Pomoy in 789, and the capture of the ruler Ucha’an Aj Chih, who appears to have been the vassal of B’olon K’awiil of Calakmul. In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1. Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis. Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b’olon b’aak, “He of Many Captives”. However, the lesser extent of Toniná’s power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz’i’ (White Dog), an important city in the Lacandon region, an area which had once been dominated by Toniná.

By the time of Ruler 8’s successor, Uh Chapat, Toniná was clearly in decline. Only a single event, in 837, can be dated to his reign, although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule.

The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen, perhaps aided by the site’s relative isolation. Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived. Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more.

The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century. A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century, the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808. John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840, and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site. Eduard Seler and Caecilie Seler-Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná, publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century. Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896. Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University, publishing their reports in 1926—1927.

The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972 which continued through 1975, then resumed in 1979 to 1980, under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez. The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico (INAH, the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year.

The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000.

The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares (650,000 sq ft). The principal architecture is located in the acropolis, which occupies seven south-facing terraces on the northern side of the platform, rising 71 metres (233 ft) over the plaza below. It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites, with a right-angle relationship between most structures.

Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies. A 16 by 4 metres (52 by 13 ft) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand. A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná’s most distinguished victims, dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below. This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque, suggesting that captured artists carried out the work.

After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period, many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces.

Ballcourt 1 (the Sunken Ballcourt) was dedicated in 699 by K’inich B’aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K’inich Kan Balam II of Palenque. Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers. One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk (Green Turtle), who was the lord of Annay Te’, a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán.

Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza, at the foot of the Acropolis.

The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step-vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis.

The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis. The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets. On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco. One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones.

The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those at other Maya sites, with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall. The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues, often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine. On the fifth terrace, in-the-round sculptures of Toniná’s rulers dominated two-dimensional representations of defeated enemies.

The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909, covering most of the Classic Period.

Monument 3 is broken into various fragments, five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum. Aside from being broken, the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded, it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K’inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch’aaj Naah.

Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná. It is a badly eroded life-size human statue with the head missing.

Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage. It is a stela base with well-preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K’inich Ich’aak Chapat in 728. It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez.

Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2. It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation of three war captives.

Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round, representing Ruler 2. It dates to AD 672.

Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K’awiil Mo’, a lord from Palenque, as an elderly prisoner, bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be trodden on time and again.

Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive, which is rare in Maya art.

Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument, it marks the K’atun ending of AD 909.

Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site, dating to AD 593. It depicts Ruler 1.

Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual.

Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8. It commemorates the death of an important noble, apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8’s predecessor Tuun Chapat.

Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II, who is depicted as a bound captive.

Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact. It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K’inich B’aaknal Chaak.

Monument 154 dates to the reign of K’inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in 633.

Monument 158 has a very late date, in AD 904, at the very end of the Classic Period. It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10.

The Frieze of the Dream Lords (also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992. It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace. It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather-covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims. Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob (spirit companions) of the Maya elite. The most well-preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi (“Turtle Foot Death”) wearing turtle shells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand, interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa’. The frieze was once brightly painted in red, blue and yellow. This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico.

The site museum is located 300 meters (980 ft) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone. It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room. The first room explains the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relates to Maya mythology, while the main room contains sculptures of the city’s rulers.

Artifacts in the collection include stone sculptures, ceramics and artifacts sculpted from bone, shell, obsidian and flint. The pieces in the museum graphically depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná, on the one hand with sculptures of the city’s rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war.

Tuxtla features a tropical wet and dry climate under the Köppen climate classification. With its relatively low altitude, the area has a hot and relatively humid climate with most rain falling in the summer. Except for a rainy and dry season (summer-fall and winter-spring respectively) there is little variation in the climate during the year. Even the distinction between the rainy and dry season is one of quantity of rain.

Air conditioning is rare as most homes and offices use fans and most rooms and offices open into streets or courtyards. Most businesses close in the late afternoon from between 2 until 4:30 or 5:00 when it can get hot. Although it is not on the coast, it is close enough that hurricanes and tropical storms can affect it at time.

In 2003, Tropical Storm Larry caused flooding in the city, forcing the evacuation of 7,000 people.

Environment

The city has an altitude of 600 meters above sea level and sits in the long narrow Tuxtla Valley, which is part of the larger Central Valley region of the state. On the north and south sides of the municipality, the land rises into mountainous terrain as one heads out of the valley.

There are three main rivers in the municipality, the Grijalva or Grande de Chiapa, the Suchiapa and the Sabinal. The last is severely polluted.

As of 2015, the municipality had a total population of 598,710. Other than the city of Tuxtla, the municipality had 189 localities, the largest of which (with 2010 populations in parentheses) were: Copoya (8,160) and El Jobo (4,632), classified as urban.

Most of the population is mestizo with a significant population of ethnic Zoques. Although about 25% of the state’s population speaks an indigenous language, the percentage is much lower in the municipality of Tuxtla. As of 2005, there were 8,256 people who spoke an indigenous language out of a total population of 434,143. The percentage of indigenous language speakers rose somewhat from 1995 to 2000 as many rural people moved into the area as a consequesnce of the Zapatista rebellion. This has added languages such as Tzotzil, Tzeltal, Zapotec and Ch’ol to the native Zoque.

As before the arrival of the Zoques, there was no pre Hispanic settlement at the site, the name “Coyatoc” refers to the valley area. Originally, this valley was called Coyatoc by the native Zoque population, which means “land or house of rabbits.” The Aztecs intruded into the area and named it “Tuchtlan” which means the same thing. “Gutiérrez” was added to the city’s name in 1848 to honor Joaquín Miguel Gutiérrez, a Conservative politician according to a legend.

After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, and the subjugation of the Chiapa people in 1528, the Dominicans constructed a monastery in nearby Tecpatán, which today is an independent municipality. There is no official founding date for Tuxtla, but it is known that in the middle of the 16th century, these monks gathered dispersed Zoques in the valley into communities centered on churches. Today’s Saint Mark’s Cathedral is the parish church founded by the Dominicans for one of these communities in 1560.

The village was officially recognized as a villa by King of Spain in 1813 with a population of about 5,000, three-quarters of which were Zoques. In 1821, the authorities of the villa proclaimed independence from both Spain and the regional colonial government of Guatemala, along with other areas in what would become Chiapas. However, this declaration was not accepted by either Guatemala or Mexico.

The first library in the entire state was founded here in 1910.

During the Mexican Revolution, a battalion called “The Sons of Tuxtla” was formed in 1911, with Captain Julio Miramontes assassinated in 1912. Troops in support of Venustiano Carranza took over in 1914, led by Agustín Castro. In 1915, the state was reorganized into the municipality system with the city becoming the head of one of these, with Noé Vázquez as first municipal president. The city remained as the state capital. Reaction against Carranza policies were headed by the “Mapaches,” a group of landholders in the state who objected to the loss of their privileges and the redistribution of their lands. They burned the state government building, destroying its archives in 1915. General Salvador Alvarado and 2500 troops fought the Mapaches commanded by General Tiburcio Fernández Ruiz. Catholic churches were closed and images of saints were burned in the city in 1934.

In 1941, the municipal government moved from the old building on El Triunfo Street in the Santo Domingo neighborhood to the corner of Avenida Central and Calle 2ª Poniente on lands that belonged to the city’s first municipal president. Here a new “municipal palace” was built in Neoclassical style. However, the municipal palace was moved again to its current location in 1982, and the Neoclassical building was given to the Federación de Trabajadores del Estado de Chiapas.

The Diocese of Tuxtla was created in 1965, which elevated the parish of San Marcos (Saint Mark) to a cathedral. Tuxtla Gutierrez became the hometown of actress Alejandra Meyer, whose acting career began during the 1960s. She is best known as Dona Chata on the television series Dr. Candido Perez. The first Feria de Chiapas was held in 1980. The municipality suffered 38 wildfires in 1988. John Paul II visited the city in 1990.

During the 1990s, a part of the state of Chiapas was racked by the EZLN or Zapatista uprising. While most of this group’s activity was in rural areas of the state, Tuxtla was also affected by it. As many as 10,000 Zapatista sympathizers protested in the city in 1998 to push federal officials to honor the 1994 San Andrés Accords and to push for new gubernatorial elections and other demands. The political instability pushed many indigenous into the municipality from more rural areas in the latter half of the decade. In 1998, PRD politician, EZLN activist and leader of the Asamblea Estatal Democrática del Pueblo Chiapaneco Rubicel Ruiz Gamboa was assassinated in the city. It is thought the act was in response to Ruiz Gamboa’s work in land redistribution in the state’s La Frailesca region.

In the 1990s, Mexicana airlines stopped service to Tuxtla, leaving only Aerocaribe. A major crash killing nineteen persons led to protests and the reinstatement of service to the city by Mexicana in 2000. In 2011, the government of Guatemala announced that it would open a consulate in the city to support its nationals who cross through Mexican territory or reside here. The government noted the problems that many Guatemalans, especially those who enter Mexico illegally, have had in the country.A tractor trailer with 219 illegal immigrants was stopped in the municipality in early 2011. Most were Guatemalan and almost all from Central America but there were also people from Sri Lanka and Nepal. The migrants were detected by using portable X-ray on the passing truck.

Tuxtla is the largest and far-most developed city in the state of Chiapas and has an accelerated population growth rate. It is clean and mainly business oriented. The city has wide busy avenues, filled with cars, taxis, busses and more. Shopping ranges from modern commercial plazas and malls to popular markets and open air tianguis.

In 2011, the city was the first in Mexico to be certified as a “safe city” by the federal government and the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm due to its very low crime rate, crime prevention programs and other factors. According to the Financial Times and FDi magazine, Tuxtla is one of a number of cities worldwide considered to be “cities of the future.” It was evaluated based on its economic potential, human resources, cost-benefit ratio, quality of life, infrastructure and business environment.

The city is centered on a large square called the Plaza Cívica, which is surrounded by government buildings such as the municipal and state government offices (called “palaces”) . On one side of this plaza is the city’s most important landmark, the Catedral de San Marcos (Saint Mark’s Cathedral), named after the patron saint of the city, Mark the Evangelist . The church was founded in the second half of the 16th century, as a Dominican parish and has had significant changes to the structure since it was built. Its apse is the only one conserved in Chiapas from the colonial era, on which remnants of frescos can be seen. The current interior is Neoclassical. It has a single nave with a Latin cross layout with two side chapels. Its current façade and tower is modeled somewhat along colonial lines, with Doric columns. The structure’s current appearance, mostly in plain white, is a result of its last remodeling which was done in the 1980s. The best known feature of this church is the forty eight bells that ring out each hour, accompanied by a “parade” of statues of the Apostles that appear on the bell tower.

The city has a number of notable parks and other green spaces. Madero Park is located on 5a Norte Avenue where is crosses Calzada de Sumidero about six blocks from the Plaza Cívica. It is a green area which is cut by a street called Paseo de los Hombres Ilustres. Along this corridor, there are various museums and cultural centers which include the Dr. Faustino Miranda Botanical Garden, which occupies four hectares along the Sabinal River. Across from the garden is the botanical museum which has a large exhibition of the various wood trees of the state. There is also a natural history museum with a number of preserved species of animals and plants as well as artifacts and maps of the historical indigenous peoples of the state. Parque Jardín de la Marimba (Marimba Garden Park) is located is eight blocks from the First Square on Central West Avenue (Avenida Central Poniente in Spanish) and Octave North West Street (8° Calle Poniente Norte) and named after the most characteristic musical instrument of the state. The park was established in 1993 to be a meeting place for families with, numerous trees, colonial style benches, lighting at night and a central kiosk. Here, marimba bands play, which often attracts older couples who come to dance. It also hosts larger musical and other events, usually related to the marimba.

On the edge of the city is the El Zapotal Ecological Reserve, best known as the home of the Zoológico Miguel Alvarez del Toro Zoo, often simply referred to as the ZooMAT. The zoo covers 100 hectares and was founded by Miguel Alvarez del Toro in 1942. He was also the director for over fifty years. ZooMAT is considered to be one of the best zoos of its kind in Latin America. It exhibits, studies, protects and preserves the native species of Chiapas, which have suffered severe stress due to human activities. The zoo has programs for research, environmental education and wildlife conservation. The zoo is especially known for its work in preserving the quetzal, being the first to breed the bird in captivity in the 1970s. The design of the zoo respects the topography of the zone and only exhibits regional wildlife. It contains 1,400 animals from 220 species including jaguars, tapirs, macaws, spider monkeys, howler monkeys and quetzals. Over 150 of the species freely roam in natural enclosures and in some areas, animals such as deer, iguanas, small reptiles and birds come very close to the areas where humans pass. Sixty of the species exhibited here are in danger of extinction, including the jaguar, the ocelot, the macaw, the quetzal and howler monkey.

The largest museum in the city is the Museo Regional de Antropología e Historia (Regional Museum of Anthropology and History), which one of the most important of its kind in Mexico. The building was constructed in modern style between 1979 and 1982, designed by architect Juan Miramontes Nájera. This design received first prize at the Third Biennial Architecture Contest in Bulgaria in 1985. Its permanent collection covers the history of the state and is divided into two halls: one for archeology and the other for history starting from the Spanish conquest . Next to it, there is the Museo de Paleontología “Eliseo Palacios Aguilera” which was inaugurated in 2002 and is the only museum of its type in the state. It contains exhibits of over 200 fossils, all from Chiapas, with range in age from 300 million to 10,000 years old. The main hall is centered on a reconstruction of a Megatherium. There is also a display dedicated to the amber of the state with pieces containing insects and spiders.

The Chiapas Museum of Science and Technology is an interactive museum for children and adults demonstrating advances in modern times in three halls: Earth and Universe, Life and Humans, and Communications and Tools.

The Mercado de los Ancianos is a large traditional market southeast of the center of the city near the zoo. It offers fresh flowers, meat, seafood, clothes, household goods and more. It has an outdoor café under a big red tent, and serves its dishes prepared from the items available in the market. These include shrimp dishes, chicken, fried whole fish, carne asada (grilled beef) and tacos. The Instituto de las Artesanias y Productos de Chiapas (Institute of Handcrafts and Products of Chiapas), also called the Casa de Artesanías, opened in 1980, is a large purple building on the main boulevard of the city, run by the government to promote the state’s traditional products. These include the best of Chiapas handcrafts including textiles, clothing, toys, ceramics and wood sculptures as well as genuine amber jewelry. It also contains an Ethnographic Museum which shows scenes representing the lifestyles of the various indigenous groups of Chiapas with dioramas of rural villages and how crafts are made. There are also mannequins displaying indigenous dress. It also sells coffee and regional candies from the state. In his time, was a great museum that stored the largest collection of photos, crafts and recreations of life of native villages in the depths of the state, but was almost entirely consumed by fire in 2001.

The Casa de la Cultura of the city is located at Avenida 1a Ponente Norte. Two other important churches are the Santo Domingo Parish and the Santo Niño de Atocha Temple.

As a municipality, the city is the local government authority for eighty three other communities which cover a territory of 412.40km2. The three urban communities of the municipality are Tuxtla, Copoya and El Jobo. However, all of the rural communities have populations of less than 600 and most have less than 200. Important rural communities include Emiliano Zapata (Agua Fría), La Libertad, Tierra Colorada, Lacandón, San Juan and San Vicente El Alto. It borders the municipalities of San Fernando, Osumacinta, Chiapa de Corzo, Suchiapa, Ocozocoautla and Berriozábal.

The natural vegetation of the area is lowland rainforest; however much has been cut down by logging and clearing for farmland and pasture. Most of the municipality’s forest and wildlife is found in a number of reserves including the Centro Ecological Recreativo El Zapotal, the Cerro Maxtumatzá State Reserve, the Vedada Villa Allende Protected Forest Zone and the Sumidero Canyon National Park.

The largest of these is Sumidero Canyon which spreads out over 21789.41 hectares in three other municipalities besides Tuxtla. It was established in 1980.

El Zapotal was created in 1990 and extends over 192.57 hectares completely within the municipality. It contains lowland rainforest, subtropical forest and some highland rainforest. All of these contain deciduous and perennial species.

Cerro Maxtumatzá was established in 1997 and with an area of 613.70 hectares within the municipality. It contains oak, holm oak and tropical forests and with some areas still containing old growth. Because of the rapid growth of the city, these green areas are under pressure. In 2011, over 200 illegal squatters were evicted from an area called “El paraíso” on the Mactumactzá Mountain, which is an ecological reserve in the municipality. This settlement covered an area of ten hectares.

The two most important local celebrations are the Feria de Saint Mark and the Feria Chiapas. The Feria de San Marcos (Saint Mark’s Fair) occurs each April in the center of the city, honoring the patron saint of Mark the Evangelist. It includes offerings, fireworks in frames called “castillos” (castles) and pilgrimages for four days starting on the 25th. The Feria Chiapas includes bullfights, horse racing, cockfights and exhibitions of the many products of the state, including crafts, manufactured goods and agricultural products. It is held on the next to last Sunday of November through the first Sunday of December. Reflecting the area’s Zoque heritage is the Zoque Carnival and a ritual called the “lowering of the virgins” which occurs in Copoya. Other important celebrations in the municipality include the San Roque, San Jacinto, San Pascualito, San Francisco, Santo Domingo and the Virgin of Guadalupe.

Much of the cuisine of the municipality reflects that of the rest of the state and includes pictes (a sweet corn tamale), la chispota (beef with chickpeas and cabbage), niguijuti (pork with mole sauce), sopa de pan (bread with broth and vegetables), cochito (pork in adobo sauce), chanfaina (lamb innards with rice), a legume called patashete, and traditional Chiapas tamales made with chipilín. Local drinks include pozol, taxcalate, agua de chía tashiagual and pinole. Some local specialties include carnes parrilladas (grilled meat platter), carne molida tartars (spicy ground meat “cooked” with lime juice with onions, tomatoes and cilantro).

The city is a transportation hub for the whole short infrastructured state of Chiapas. Tuxtla is connected by road, bus and air to the rest of the country and Central America; there is no railroad access.

Roads

The municipality has 54.25 km of highways, over half are rural roads (28.75 km). The Panamerican Highway is the main access way, crossing the city as Federal Highway 190 from west to east; the stretch from Ocozocoautla to Chiapa de Corzo has been upgraded to a 4-lane highway. There are plans to build a new bypass to the south of the city (Nuevo Libramiento Sur) to alleviate the heavy traffic.

A-road, 2-lane toll motorways connect the Tuxtla area with San Cristóbal (45 min), Arriaga (1 hour) and Minatitlán (2.5 hours). Other paved state highways link the city with Suchiapa/Villaflores (Hwy 133) and the airport/La Angostura (Hwy 157) to the south, and San Fernando/Chicoasén (Hwy 102) to the north.

Buses

A new First Class bus station was opened in the northwest of the city, serving many Mexican travelers as well as backpackers especially from Europe. The bus station is served by the Cristobal Colon, Maya de Oro, ADO and Rapidos del Sur lines. Main destinations are Mexico, Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tapachula, San Cristóbal, Villahermosa, Mérida and Cancún.

Air

In the past, the city had two airports but none of them were fully functional due to weather and location issues. Today, a brand new airport serves the city and the central region of the state, located 35 km from the center of the city. Since opening in 2006, it has become one of the more important airports in the country and the busiest in Southwestern Mexico, with 1,272,689 passengers traveling in 2016. It is also one of the most modern facilities in the country, covering 740 hectares. Its official name is Ángel Albino Corzo International Airport, with IATA code TGZ. It cost about one billion pesos to build and was funded by government and private investors. There is taxi service from the airport to Chiapa de Corzo and the city and bus service to the First Class station and to San Cristóbal de las Casas. The new facility can receive direct flights from the United States and Central/South America. As of January 2017, there are direct flights to Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Cancún, Toluca, Villahermosa, Oaxaca and Mérida. Interjet service to Mexico City includes an “Ecojet” which is modified to be more fuel efficient.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The river and its tributaries were important trade routes for the ancient Maya civilization. Yaxchilan and Piedras Negras, two of the most powerful cities of the Maya Classic Period, lie along its banks.

Before roads, such as the Border Highway constructed by the Mexican Government in the early 1990s, penetrated the jungle, the river was the only means of travel in this region. Huge trunks of hardwood trees were floated downriver to the state of Tabasco.

In the 1980s, many Guatemalan refugees fled across the river to relative safety in Mexico.

Other groups of refugees and Guatemalan guerrillas formed the so-called CPR communities in the jungle on the Guatemalan shores, hiding from the government until the peace accords of the nineties.

Frans and Trudi Blom first brought the idea of conservation to the watershed in the 1950s by proposing that a section of the Selva Lacandona be reserved for the Lacandon Maya.

Their idea was as much the preservation of culture as of habitat, and this principle – that indigenous integrity and habitat are inextricably linked in the watershed – should help guide any future conservation planning.

Conservationists working in the region, such as Nacho March, Ron Nigh, Fernando Ochoa, Roan Balas McNab, and others, have all acknowledged and upheld the principle in their work.

The first large hydroelectric project on the Usumacinta in “Boca del Cerro”, Tenosique, Tabasco, was proposed in the 1980s and would have stretched all the way up the Pasion and Lacantun tributaries, flooding Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan, among other known and unknown Maya sites. At that time, the Guatemalan shore was held by rebels, whose presence discouraged illegal logging, poaching, and looting. It also discouraged dam engineers.

In 1985 Jefferey Wilkerson’s groundbreaking article in National Geographic brought the river and its glories to widespread public consciousness for the first time.

Additionally, the Guatemalan journalist Victor Perera wrote about the river in The Nation and in his books, The Last Lords of Palenque and Unfinished Conquest, and Jan de Vos chronicled the region in his magisterial series of histories.

Ultimately the hydro project failed under the weight of its own disincentives: siltation, geology, seismic activity, distance from markets, politics, etc., but the outcry from conservationists, archeologists, writers, and the public helped. It also established a pattern.

A thriving seasonal business in wilderness tourism began after the Wilkerson article. The river and its environs became a favorite destination of river travelers, amateur Mayanists and archaeologists, birders and wildlife tourists.

Carlos Salinas de Gortari proposed a smaller but still monumental hydro project in 1990, and completed the periferico surrounding the Montes Azules reserve. Articles in The New York Times and op-ed pieces by Homero Aridjis suggesting a binational reserve for the area, helped defeat this incarnation of the idea.

In the late 1990s, a consortium of scientists, and government and non-governmental organizations met in San Cristóbal de las Casas, to identify the extent and types of habitat remaining in the region, and to draw maps of the watershed.

The conference addressed many of the jurisdictional and administrative questions that still bedevil the idea.

The Zapatista Rebellion in 1994 and 1995, and the Guatemalan peace accords in 1996, reshaped the political lines in the watershed. As a direct consequence, and with the dramatic fall of the peso, bandits began robbing raft trips, ending wilderness travel in the corridor.

One of the most promising tourist activities, with the least potential impact and the most possibility for helping conservation, archaeology, and cultural preservation, ended. Illegal activity of all types took over the corridor.

The Mexican army, which pervaded the Zapatista region, had little effect on river crime, and may have abetted it.

In Guatemala, the absence of the expelled CPR communities, which had helped keep the selva safe and secure, now left it open to invasion, illegal logging, smuggling of immigrants, arms, artifacts, and drugs.

Many members of those communities now work as Defensores, but their numbers are few, and they are poorly paid. The region continued in a state of low-grade terror and occupation for ten years.

Epigraphers think that the ancient name for the city was probably the same as that of its realm, Pa’ Chan, meaning “Cleft (or broken) Sky”.

Early archaeologist Désiré Charnay dubbed the ruins “Lorillard City” in honor of Pierre Lorillard who contributed to defray the expense of his expedition into the Maya zone, while Alfred Maudslay named it “Menché”.

Teoberto Maler gave it its modern name, said to mean “Green Stones” in an unspecified Maya language. For some time, the Emblem Gylph was read as Siyaj Chan, or “Sky Born”.

Yaxchilan is located on the south bank of the Usumacinta River, at the apex of a horseshoe-shaped meander. This loop defends the site on all sides except for a narrow land approach from the south.

The site is 40 kilometres (25 mi) upriver from the ruins of Piedras Negras, its major rival. Yaxchilan is 21 kilometres (13 mi) from the ruins of Bonampak.

The site lies in Ocosingo Municipality in the state of Chiapas, on the Mexican side of the international border with Guatemala, which follows the line of river. It is 80 kilometres (50 mi) downriver from the Maya site Altar de Sacrificios.

In the Late Classic Period Yaxchilan was one of the most powerful Maya states along the course of the Usumacinta, with Piedras Negras as its major rival. Architectural styles in subordinate sites in the Usumacinta region demonstrate clear differences that mark a clear boundary between the two kingdoms.

Yaxchilan was a large center, important throughout the Classic era, and the dominant power of the Usumacinta River area. It dominated such smaller sites as Bonampak, and had a long rivalry with Piedras Negras and at least for a time with Tikal; it was a rival of Palenque, with which Yaxchilan warred in 654.

***

Yaxchilan has its origins in the Preclassic Period. A large part of what is known of the Classic Period history of the city comes from the hieroglyphic texts of the kings who ruled during its Late Classic apogee, one of the most important of which is Hieroglyphic Stairway 1. Some retrospective inscriptions appear to have been used to rewrite Yaxchilan’s dynastic history to suit king Bird Jaguar IV. Before the rule of king Itzamnaaj Balam II, who reigned from 681 to 742, the city was relatively small. The city-state then grew to a regional capital and the dynasty lasted into the early 9th century.

Early Classic

The known history of Yaxchilan starts with the enthronement of Yopaat B’alam I, most likely on 23 July 359. He was the founder of a long dynasty, and took the throne when Yaxchilan was still a minor site. Hieroglyphic inscriptions dating to the Late Classic describe a series of wars in the Early Classic between the city and its neighbours. K’inich Tatb’u Skull I ruled in the early 5th century and was the first of the rulers of Yaxchilan to be recorded as having taken a rival king as a war captive, his prisoner being king Bird Jaguar of Bonampak (not to be confused with the four rulers of Yaxchilan who bore the same name). The long running rivalry with Piedras Negras had already begun by the fifth century AD, with both cities struggling to dominate the Usumacinta trade route. King Moon Skull was credited with gaining a victory over Piedras Negras in 460 and with capturing the enemy king, known only as Ruler A. By the middle of the 5th century Yaxchilan had formal contacts with the great city of Tikal. Bird Jaguar II, the next king of Yaxchilan, captured a vassal of the king of Piedras Negras around 478.

Knot-eye Jaguar I was a warlike king who was recorded as capturing nobles from Bonampak, Piedras Negras and the great city of Tikal. In 514, Knot-eye Jaguar I was taken captive by Ruler C of Piedras Negras, as depicted on Lintel 12 from that city, where he is shown kneeling before the enemy king with his wrists bound.

His successor, K’inich Tatb’u Skull II, was enthroned on 11 February 526. This king is notable for the series of carved lintels he commissioned, including a dynastic list that provides information on the early kings of the city. K’inich Tatb’u Skull II oversaw a revival of Yaxchilan’s fortunes and he captured lords from Bonampak, Lakamtuun and, notably, the lord of Calakmul, one of the two great Maya powers of the Classic Period, as well as a success against Tikal, the second great power.

Little is known of the history of Yaxchilan from 537 to 629, although four kings are known to have reigned in this period. Knot-eye Jaguar II is known to have captured the lord of Lacanha in 564, one of the few events that can be identified from this period. It may be that the lack of an inscribed history for this lengthy period indicates that Yaxchilan had fallen under the dominion of a more powerful neighbour, such as Piedras Negras, Palenque or Toniná, all of which were powerful polities in the Usumacinta region at this time.

Late Classic

The Yaxchilano murals at Bonampak’s Structure I commemorate Yaxchilan’s appointment of Chan Muwaan I as subordinate ruler. Yaxchilan rebuilt the site to point back toward Yaxchilan.

In 629, Bird Jaguar III was enthroned as king of Yaxchilan. In 646 or 647 he captured a lord from the still unidentified site of Hix Witz (meaning “Jaguar Hill”), somewhere on the north side of the Usumacinta.

Yaxchilan reached its greatest power during the reigns of King Itzamnaaj B’alam II, who died in his 90s in 742, and his son Bird Jaguar IV. Itzamnaaj B’alam II was enthroned in October 681 and he ruled for more than sixty years. During the last third of his reign he was responsible for a monumental building programme that included the erection of magnificent buildings with richly carved lintels, hieroglyphic stairways and carved stelae, transforming the centre of the city. During his reign, the kingdom of Yaxchilán extended to include the nearby sites of La Pasadita and El Chicozapote to the northwest of the city. At times the sites of Lacanha and Bonampak appear to have been under his domination, although this region was controlled by Toniná in 715.

In 689, relatively early in his reign, Itzamnaaj B’alam II is recorded as having captured Aj Sak Ichiy Pat. In 713 he captured Aj K’an Usja, the ajaw, or lord, of B’uktunn, an otherwise unknown site. In 726, Yaxchilan was defeated by its rival Piedras Negras, an event described on Piedras Negras Stela 8. A sajal (subordinate lord) of Itzamnaaj B’alam II was captured by the enemy city, an event that is completely absent from inscriptions at Yaxchilán itself although, importantly, there is no false claim of victory. It is after this period, over forty years into the reign of Itzamnaaj B’alam II, that this king embarked upon his impressive building programme, this may indicate that at this time Yaxchilan was able to exert independence from the hegemony of once powerful neighbours and claim greater political independence and more lucrative control of riverine trade. In 729, Itzamnaaj B’alam II captured Aj Popol Chay, the lord of Lacanha. This event, together with the other victories of Itzamnaaj Balam II’s reign, is described both in the hieroglyphic texts of Structure 44 and also on a series of stelae near Structure 41. This victory over Lacanha is compared to the earlier victory of Knot-eye Jaguar II against the same city. Similarly, his capture of a lord of Hix Witz in 732 is compared to Bird Jaguar III’s victory over the same site.

In 749, Yopaat B’alam II of Yaxchilan attended a ceremony to honour Ruler 4 of Piedras Negras. If Yopaat B’alam II was king of Yaxchilan at this time, this would indicate that he was subordinate to the king of Piedras Negras. This event was recorded on Piedras Negras Panel 3; there are no records of the reign of Yopaat B’alam II at Yaxchilan itself, indicating that any records were later destroyed if he had indeed ruled there.

Yaxchilan retaliated in 759, gaining a victory over its enemy. Circa 790 CE, Yaxchilan’s king Shield Jaguar III oversaw the installation of Chan Muwaan II in Bonampak, and hired Yaxchilano artisans to commemorate it (and the previous Chan Muwaan) in “Structure I”‘s murals.

In 808, king K’inich Tatb’u Skull III marked his capture of the king of Piedras Negras, an event that probably represented the final overthrow of Yaxchilan’s long running enemy, ending dynastic rule there and destroying the city as a capital.

The first published mention of the site seems to have been a brief mention by Juan Galindo in 1833, published by the Royal Geographical Society. Professor Edwin Rockstoh of the National College of Guatemala visited in 1881 and published another short account. Explorers Alfred Maudslay and Désiré Charnay arrived here within days of each other in 1882, and they published more detailed accounts of the ruins with drawings and photographs. Maudslay’s report was published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1883. Teoberto Maler visited the site repeatedly from 1897 to 1900, his detailed two volume description of the ruins and other nearby sites was published by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University in 1903.

In 1931 Sylvanus Morley led a Carnegie Institution expedition to Yaxchilan, mapped the site and discovered more monuments.

From 1970 onwards, Ian Graham made numerous visits to Yaxchilan and recorded the inscriptions there. These inscriptions were published from 1977 onwards in the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University.

The Mexican National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) conducted archeological research at Yaxchilan in 1972 – 1973, again in 1983, and further INAH work was conducted in the early 1990s. INAH has consolidated and preserved the central portion of the site.

Mayanist Tatiana Proskouriakoff did some pioneering work on deciphering Maya writing using the inscriptions of Yaxchilan, and was able to identify the glyphs for death, capture and captor. Since then Peter Mathews and others have expanded on her early work.

Since 1990, the project La Pintura Mural Prehispánica en México (Prehispanic Wall Painting in Mexico) of the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México has examined and recorded precolumbian murals such as those at Yaxchilan.

Yaxchilan has long been difficult to reach other than by river. Until recently, no roads existed within 100 miles. The only ways to get to the site were hundreds of miles by boat, or else by small plane. Since the construction of the Border Highway by the Mexican Government in the early 1980s, it is possible for tourists to visit. To reach the site, it is necessary now only to take an hour-long boat ride down the Usumacinta River from Frontera Corozal.

Some Lacandon Maya still make pilgrimages to Yaxchilan to carry out rituals to the Maya gods.

The site contains impressive ruins, with palaces and temples bordering a large plaza upon a terrace above the Usumacinta River. The architectural remains extend across the higher terraces and the hills to the south of the river, overlooking both the river itself and the lowlands beyond. Yaxchilan is known for the large quantity of excellent sculpture at the site, such as the monolithic carved stelae and the narrative stone reliefs carved on lintels spanning the temple doorways. Over 120 inscriptions have been identified on the various monuments from the site.

The major groups are the Central Acropolis, the West Acropolis and the South Acropolis. The South Acropolis occupies the highest part of the site. The site is aligned with relation to the Usumacinta River, at times causing unconventional orientation of the major structures, such as the two ballcourts.

Structure 6 is near the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis. It is in a good state of preservation and has six doorways, three facing the plaza and three facing the river. The doorways that open onto the plaza were blocked up in antiquity and new doorways were cut into the sides of the structure. The facade of the building facing the plaza has a surviving frieze with a sculpture of a head. The structure has a surviving perforated roof comb and is believed to date to the Early Classic.

Structure 7 is beside Structure 6 but is in a much poorer state of preservation, with its vaulted ceiling having collapsed. This structure also had doorways facing both the river and the Main Plaza.

Structure 8 is located in the Main Plaza in front of Structure 7 and divides the plaza into northwestern and southeastern sections.

Structure 9 is an unrestored mound northwest of Structure 7. Stela 27 stands in front of it.

Structure 10 shares an L-shaped platform with Structures 13 and 74, in the Central Acropolis. The structure contains a series of hieroglyphic lintels describing the birth and accession of king Bird Jaguar IV.

Structure 12 is a small structure in the Central Acropolis, close to the river. It contained eight lintels dating to the early 6th century. The structure is located in the Central Acropolis close to one of the ballcourts. The lintels record nine generations of rulers of the city. The lintels were commissioned by K’inich Tatb’u Skull II, their original location is unknown, being reset into Structure 12 in the 8th century by king Bird Jaguar IV. Some of the lintels remain in place.

Structure 13 rests on an L-shaped platform in the Central Acropolis, together with Structures 10 and 74.

Structure 14 is the northwest ballcourt. It is located on the Main Plaza of the Central Acropolis. Five sculpted ballcourt markers were found here, three of which were aligned on the playing area and one on each of the platforms to either side. One of the ballcourt markers was removed from the site, the rest are broken and eroded.

Structure 16 is close to the northwest ballcourt. It contains Lintels 38 through to 40, which have been reset in their original positions.

Structure 19 is also known as the Labyrinth. It lies at the western edge of the Central Acropolis. The structure is a temple with rooms spread over three levels, linked by interior stairways. The temple facade has four doorways, with three doorway-sized niches between them. Two sculptured altars are located in front of the structure, which still has the remains of a perforated roof comb.

Structure 20 is in the Central Acropolis and has three rooms. The three doorways to this structure once supported sculpted Lintels 12, 13 and 14, although only two now remain. A small amount of the roof comb of the building remains, and the sloped roof still has surviving friezes containing niches. Structure 20 was excavated by Ian Graham in 1982, during the excavations a hieroglyphic step was found in front of the building, it was reburied in order to preserve it.

Structure 21 is on a terrace below Structure 25 and 26. The three lintels over the doorways in this structure were Lintels 15 through to 17, although they were removed in the 19th century and are now in the British Museum in London. Structure 21 was excavated in 1983. The vaulted roof of the structure had already collapsed before 1882, filling the rooms with rubble that has now been removed, uncovering several important monuments, including Stela 35 and the remains of life size stucco figures on the back wall behind the stela itself.

Structure 22 is on a terrace in the Central Acropolis near the Main Plaza. It still has sculptured lintels in place.

Structure 23 is in the Central Acropolis, overlooking the Main Plaza. It was built during the reign of Itzamnaaj B’alam II and is especially significant because it was the first major construction undertaken after a lapse of 150 years. Structure 23 is dedicated to Lady K’ab’al Xook, a wife of the king. It originally had three lintels set above its doorways that appear to mark the re-founding of Yaxchilan in an effort to reinforce the lineage and right to rule of king Itzamnaaj B’alam II. Lintels 24 and 25 were removed at the end of the 19th century and are now in the British Museum, while Lintel 26 is in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City. This series of lintels are among the finest relief sculpture surviving in the Maya region.

Structure 24 is on a terrace near the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis. It still has sculptured lintels in place.

Structure 25 is in the Central Acropolis close to the approach to Structure 33. It has not been excavated or restored, although it has some intact vaulting.

Structure 26 is located beside Structure 25 in the Central Acropolis and has not been excavated. It is the least well preserved of the two structures.

Structure 30 is in the Central Acropolis, it has three doorways facing onto the Plaza. The structure has two parallel rooms with well-preserved vaulting.

Structure 33, in the Central Acropolis, has been described as a masterpiece in stone and was probably dedicated in 756 by Bird Jaguar IV. The structure overlooks the plaza and the river and would have been prominent to river traffic in the 8th century. It has plain lower walls with three doorways, each of the which supports a well-preserved lintel (Yaxchilan Lintels 1 to 3). In centre of the back wall of the structure, opposite the central doorway, is a niche containing the headless sculpture of a human figure, probably Bird Jaguar IV himself. The roof of the structure is largely intact, including a sloped roof supporting a frieze and a well-preserved roof comb. There are niches in both the roof comb and the frieze, the niche in the roof comb contains the remains of a sculpted figure. Tennons on both roof sections once supported stucco decoration. Leading up to the front of Structure 33 from the plaza is a stairway, the top step of which is sculpted, this step is known as Hieroglyphic Stairway 2.

The South Acropolis consists of Structures 39, 40 and 41. A number of stelae and altars are associated with them.

Structure 39 has been restored and lies within the South Acropolis. It has three stepped doorways that open onto a single, irregularly shaped room. The remains of a perforated roof comb survive, with tenons that once supported stucco decoration.

Structure 40 is flanked by structures 39 and 41. It has been restored and also has three doorways opening onto a single room and the remains of a perforated roof comb. The room has the remains of murals that once covered all the interior walls. Stelae 12 and 13 stand before structure 40 and Stela 11 once stood between them.

Structure 41 has also been restored. Like the other two structures in the South Acropolis, it has three doorways that open onto a single room. It is not as well preserved as Structures 39 and 40 and much of the vaulted roof has collapsed. A fraction of stucco frieze from the sculpture may date the building to 740, the 3rd K’atun anniversary of Itzamnaaj B’alam II’s reign. The central doorway is stepped and the front wall has been buttressed. It is one of three principal structures atop the highest vantage point in the city and a series of stelae was set in front of it that described the military campaigns of Itzamnaaj B’alam II.

Structure 42 is located in the West Acropolis. The structure had a series if carved limestone lintels that depict Bird Jaguar IV’s efforts to consolidate power, emulating events carried out by his father Itzamnaaj B’alam II.

Structure 44 is in the West Acropolis. It still contains a carved lintel, and has sculpted steps. A number of stelae were originally associated with Structure 44. This temple was built by Itzamnaaj B’alam II and was dedicated around 732. The sculpted texts from this building provide an account of the 8th century resurgence of the city. Each of the three doorways contained sculptured lintels and two hieroglyphic steps.

Structure 67 is the southeast ballcourt, located in the Central Acropolis.

Hieroglyphic stairways

Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 leads up to Structure 5 in the Central Acropolis. It has six sculpted risers consisting of various carved blocks, many of which are heavily eroded.

Hieroglyphic Stairway 2 is the riser of the uppermost step approaching Structure 33. It consists of 13 sculptured blocks, numbered from left to right as Steps I to XIII. Steps VI, VII and XVIII are extremely well preserved and depict Bird Jaguar IV and two of his predecessors dressed as ball players.

Lintels

Lintel 1 is above the eastern doorway of Structure 33 in the Central Acropolis. It depicts 8th-century king Bird Jaguar IV accompanied by his wife Lady Great Skull Zero.

Lintel 2 is set above the central doorway of Structure 33. It shows Bird Jaguar IV accompanied by his son and heir, Shield Jaguar II.

Lintel 3 is above the westernmost doorway of Structure 33. It also shows Bird Jaguar IV, this time accompanied by an ally.

Lintel 10 is the last known monument at Yaxchilan, dating to 808. It depicts K’inich Yat Ahk II of Piedras Negras as a captive of Yachilan king K’inich Tatbu Skull IV.

Lintel 12 was originally set into Structure 20 in the Central Acropolis. It is now in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City.

Lintel 13 is above a doorway in Structure 20. It had fallen when the roof of the building collapsed but has since been reset. The sculpture on the lintel is very well preserved.

Lintel 14 is set above a doorway in Structure 20 and is particularly well preserved.

Lintel 15 originally spanned a doorway in Structure 21, it was removed to the British Museum in 1982-1983. Like Lintels 16 and 17 from the same series, it was carved from limestone. It was originally set above the southeast doorway of the central room. Lintel 15 depicts Lady Wak Tuun, one of the wives of king Bird Jaguar IV, during a bloodletting ritual that results in the appearance of the Vision Serpent. Lady Wak Tuun is carrying a basket containing the tools used for the bloodletting ritual, including a stingray spine, rope and bloodstained paper. The Vision Serpent emerges from a bowl containing strips of bark paper.

Lintel 16 also spanned a doorway in Structure 21 and was removed to the British Museum in 1982-1983. It was sculpted from limestone and was originally set above the central doorway of the central room. It shows Bird Jaguar IV holding a spear and standing over a kneeling captive. Bird Jaguar IV wears the same costume that his father is depicted wearing on Lintel 26. The capture event depicted on Lintel 16 took place in 752.

Lintel 17 was another lintel from a doorway in Structure 21 that is now in the British Museum. It is sculpted from limestone and was originally set above the northwest doorway of the central room. It dates to the reign of Bird Jaguar IV. The lintel depicts Bird Jaguar IV and his wife Lady B’alam Mut participating in a bloodletting ritual. The king watches while his wife pulls a rope through her tongue draw blood. This ritual is recorded as having taken place eight days after the capture event depicted on Lintel 16.

Lintel 24 is sculpted from limestone and is regarded as a masterpiece of Maya art. It is one of a series of three lintels that were set above the doorways of Structure 23, this one having been set above the southeast doorway. It shows a bloodletting ritual being carried out by king Itzamnaaj B’alam II and his wife Lady K’ab’al Xook, the king stands holding a burning torch over his wife, who pulls a spiked rope through her tongue. A screenfold book lies in a basket in front of the kneeling princess. The lintel has traces of red and blue pigments. The ceremony represented on the sculpture took place on 28 October, 709. Lintel 24 was removed at the end of the 19th century and is now on display in the British Museum.

Lintel 25 was originally set above the central doorway of Structure 23. It was carved from limestone during the reign of king Itzamnaaj B’alam II and shows Lady Xook invoking the Vision Serpent to commemorate the accession of her husband to the throne. Lady Xook holds a bowl containing bloodletting apparatus consisting of a stingray spine and bloodstained paper. The Vision Serpent rising before her has two heads, one at each extreme, from the mouth of one emerges a warrior, from the other emerges the head of central Mexican deity Tlaloc, a water god from the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico. The hieroglyphic inscription on the lintel is unusual, being reversed as if it were meant to be read in a mirror, although the significance of this is unknown. Like Lintel 24, Lintel 25 was removed at the end of the 19th century and is now on display in the British Museum. The events depicted on the lintel are described as having occurred “in front of the water of Siyan Chan”, a reference to the main plaza of the city being located on the shore of the Usumacinta River.

Lintel 26 was the third in the series set above the doorways of Structure 23, it is now in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City. It dates to 726 and bears a portrait of Itzamnaaj B’alam II.

Lintel 29 is set into Structure 10 in the Central Acropolis. It is part of a series of three lintels bearing a continuous hieroglyphic text detailing the birth and accession of king Bird Jaguar IV.

Lintel 30 is part of the lintel series carved with a continuous hieroglyphic text set into Structure 10.

Lintel 31 is another part of the series of three hieroglyphic lintels set into Structure 10.

Lintel 35 was found by Maudslay among the rubble of Structure 12 and is now kept at the British Museum. It was sculpted from limestone in the 6th century under the rule of K’inich Tatb’u Skull II and records a series of victories including that over the great city of Calakmul.

Lintel 38, Lintel 39 and Lintel 40 have been reset in their original positions in Structure 16 in the Central Acropolis. Unlike most of the other lintels at Yaxchilan, they are sculpted on their edges instead of the undersides.

Lintel 41 was set above the south doorway of Structure 42 in the West Acropolis. It had fallen and broken into two pieces when Maudsley found it in the late 19th century. The upper section is on display in the British Museum, the lower section is damaged. The lintel was carved from limestone and is one of a series of lintels set in the same structure that celebrate the victories of king Bird Jaguar IV. The king is shown preparing for a battle that took place in 755, his wife is offering him his spear, she is Lady Wak Jalam Chan Ajaw from the site of Motul de San José in the Petén Lakes region of Guatemala.

Lintel 50 is set into Structure 13 in the Central Acropolis.

Lintel 60 remains in its original setting in Structure 12. It was discovered during excavations of the structure in 1984.

Stela 2 is on the lowest terrace opposite the stairway approach to Structure 33. It is badly weathered and dates to 613.

Stela 3 stands on a platform in the middle of a plaza by Structure 20. It was badly damaged and the fragments have been reassembled and the monument re-erected. One side of the stela has well-preserved sculpture.

Stela 5 is in front of the terrace holding Structure 20. The upper part of this monument depicts king Itzamnaaj B’alam II.

Stela 6 stands in front of the terrace supporting Structure 20. It is largely intact and depicts the 7th-century ruler Bird Jaguar III.

Stela 7 was badly damaged, being broken into fragments. The monument has now been reassembled and the surviving sculpture is of excellent quality. The stela stands in front of a terrace below Structure 20. It depicts a kneeling figure.

Stela 11 originally stood in front of Structure 40. The stela was removed in 1964 and shipped upriver to Agua Azul to be flown to Mexico City for display in the Museo Nacional de Antropología. However, it was too heavy to fly and was returned to Yaxchilan in 1965 and now lies near the bank of the river. The upper side of the stela depicts king Bird Jaguar IV and his father. The figures and the accompanying hieroglyphic panel are very well preserved. There are various dates inscribed on the stela with the earliest being 741. The stela is broken into two parts.

Stela 18 dates from some time after 723. It depicts the victorious king Itzamnaaj B’alam II standing over a kneeling captive, who is identified as Aj Popol Chaj, the ruling lord of Lacanha.

Stela 27 has been re-erected in front of Structure 9 on the Main Plaza in the Central Acropolis. The monument dates to 514 and depicts the king Knot-eye Jaguar I. This stela is the earliest known from Yaxchilan. Stela 27 is particularly notable because it was obviously damaged in antiquity and subsequently restored in the Late Classic, with substantial reworking in the lower third of the stela dating to the time of Bird Jaguar IV.

Stela 31 is located a short distance in front of Structure 33. It is a particularly unusual monument because it is sculpted from a stalactite. It is undated and depicts three incised figures and some hieroglyphs.

Stela 33 is a fragmented monument that was discovered during excavations of the platform supporting Stela 3.

Stela 35 is an exceptionally well preserved monument found during excavations of Structure 21 in 1983. The stela is fairly small and depicts Lady Eveningstar (also known as Lady Ik Skull), the mother of king Bird Jaguar IV.

Moon Skull

Moon Skull was the seventh known ruler of Yaxchilan and ruled in the 5th century. His name is not an actual reference to the moon but is rather the Maya word for a spear-thrower.

Bird Jaguar II

Bird Jaguar II was the eighth king in the dynastic record of Yaxchilan. Two of his sons became kings after him, Knot-eye Jaguar I and K’inich Tatb’u Skull II.

Knot-eye Jaguar I

Knot-eye Jaguar I was the ninth known king of Yaxchilan, he reigned in the early 6th century. His glyphic name should probably be read as Joy B’alam. He was a son of the previous ruler, Bird Jaguar II.

K’inich Tatb’u Skull II

K’inich Tatb’u Skull II is the 10th in the dynastic king list.
He was another son of Bird Jaguar II.

Bird Jaguar III

Bird Jaguar III is described in one text as fifteenth in line from Yopaat B’alam I. Bird Jaguar III took Lady Pakal as his wife, who lived a very long life, dying in 705 at the age of at least 98 years. Their son and heir was Itzamnaaj B’alam II.

Itzamnaaj B’alam II

Itzamnaak B’alam II acceded in October 681 and ruled for 60 years. He was often referred to in hieroglyphic texts as Master of Aj Nik, referring to the capture of his first captive before he became king, this phrase being attached to his name on 32 separate occasions. Aj Nik himself was a sub-lord from a place known as either Maan or Namaan and was not of high rank.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700