Agua Azul waterfalls are a magnificent natural spectacle, as several waterfalls, coming from the river Tujila, splash downwards over different natural terraces, giving you the impression of being only one huge waterfall.

The river carries a lot of earth washed away from the river banks during the rainy season from May to September so the water could be rather brown in these seasons. From October to April the water is really blue.

Agua Azul waterfalls turn into a slower-flowing river, once the currents reach the lowest part of the downfall. Swimming is allowed, but you should take precautions not to get too far, as there might be some undercurrents.

On both sides of the waterfall, you will discover the deep green dense tropical vegetation growing on these somewhat higher grounds called tropical vegetation of altitude, which completes a view of outstanding natural beauty.

You also can walk up a path leading upwards along the waterfall, where you get the most amazing view of the surroundings.

The grounds of the area belong to Mayan community-land owners, who built the roads and walking lanes to and around the waterfall. And they are zealous to preserve all fauna and flora of the surroundings.

If you get hungry you will find a few simple, but clean restaurants with delicious Mayan cuisine, stands with bottled water and sodas, and some stands with Mayan handicrafts on the grounds.

On weekends you will probably find some more visitors on the site as under the week. Yet, as the area is very large, you will find enough space to relax and enjoy your stay.

Agua Azul waterfalls are located between the town of Palenque and the town of Ocosingo, a little further ahead of the Misol Ha waterfall on Federal Highway 199. You could take a shuttle tour to the Misol Ha and the Blue Waterfalls.

Check local tour agencies in San Cristobal de las Casas, Palenque town, and Ocosingo.

This rock formation is known as Land’s End because it is where the Pacific Ocean meets the Sea of Cortez. These rocks played an important role in the epoch when the route of the Manila galleons passed through this coast.

Many pirates historically frequented this region. These rocks provided good hiding spots for pirate ships, and lookouts stationed there could signal the arrival of potential targets, allowing the pirates to prepare for attacks.

Boats depart from Medano Beach every morning for a 30-minute trip to Land’s End.

The trip passes good diving spots and a famous sea lion colony, and your guide will introduce you to the history and legends associated with each of the rock formations you encounter along the way.

In October, when sea levels drop, visitors can walk through the arch onto the beach.

This cave was discovered in 1966, by a team of ornithologists from Texas.

Ornithologists discovered in this grave a more than eloquent example of the importance that such graves have for the bird populations of the region, by providing shelter from predators in their steep walls.

The first Mexican expedition was carried out in 1974 by the Mexica speleologist Lorenzo García Gallardo who was the first to descend. In 1978, Isabel Vivian was the first Mexican woman to descend this cave.

Despite the initial purely scientific interest, the pit soon began to attract speleologists looking for an interesting experience, and later tourists, due to the spectacular descent and views.

However, it is possible that the place was a victim of its popularity since subsequent ornithological studies have confirmed a gradual decrease in the bird population inside the grotto, perhaps due to this influx of new visitors.

Currently, the basement and other similar graves are considered biosphere reserves by the Mexican government, a status that grants them relative legal protection, while privileging the measured exploitation of the site.

Discovered in 1966 by a team of ornithologists, the cave gained popularity among cavers and tourists for its stunning descent and views. Initially a site of scientific interest, its appeal led to a decrease in bird populations.

The Mexican government designated the cave, as a biosphere reserve. Despite concerns about the impact of visitors on bird populations, the site continues to be legally protected, balancing conservation with measured exploration.

The cave is a popular vertical caving destination. Cavers anchor their ropes on the low side, where bolts have been installed in the rock and the area is clear of obstructions. Rappelling to the floor can take up to an hour.

Climbing back out may take from 40 minutes to more than 2 hours.

The Cave of Swallows is considered the world’s largest single-drop cave with 512 meters of depth. The cave is admired by spelunkers of various nationalities as one of the most beautiful vertical caves globally.

The descent into this subterranean world begins at dawn, accompanied by the mesmerizing flight of thousands of swifts and parrots. The film “Point Break” (2015) briefly references this cave and its vast dimensions.

It takes almost 10 seconds for a person without a parachute to freely fall from his mouth to the floor. The pit is popular among extreme sports enthusiasts for base jumping, who later can get out in about 10 minutes using a winch.

Rich finds of silver were discovered in the Naica mountains in the middle of the dry, inhospitable Chihuahua Desert in the 18th century. Later it was discovered that the mine had other valuable metals – zinc and lead.

Now Naica mines are the largest in Mexico and since the 1950s are managed by the company Industrias Peñoles. Ore of metals almost vertically goes down and thus the mines also are becoming deeper and deeper.

Currently, the deepest shafts are more than 850 meters deep.

Geological history

Naica Mines have formed in an ancient fault line above the magma chamber. Magma causes the high temperature in the cave but it also has formed the minerals of Naica Mine including the giant crystals.

The heated groundwater here dissolved surrounding rocks and became saturated with sulfide ions. This overheated solution went upwards until it met with the cool groundwater from the surface – this groundwater was saturated with oxygen.

As the oxygen and sulfide ions met and magma-heated water cooled down, gypsum crystals started to grow. Slowly, over the period of approximately 500,000 years formed crystals of incredible size.

Their creation was a lucky coincidence of many factors and one factor is – stable, uniform conditions with the same flow of water, the same pressure and temperature (around 54 °C) over these 500,000 years.

Already in 1910 miners hit an unusual cavern in Naica Mines – this cave was filled with enormous, up to 1 meter long, transparent selenite crystals. This cavern got a name – Cave of Swords (“Cueva de las Espadas”).

Eloy and Javier Delgado discovered the Cave of Crystals in April 2000 while excavating a new tunnel. Both miners nearly died while walking through the discovered wonder. This discovery became a worldwide sensation.

However, its discovery was pure luck – this new tunnel is located quite far from the main body of ore.

Cave of the Crystals is located 290 meters below the land surface.

The cave is shaped like a horseshoe, approximately 10 by 27 m large.

The most peculiar feature is the giant crystals of selenite (gypsum). The largest of these crystals is 12 m long, has a diameter of 4 m and its estimated weight is 55 tons. It is one of the largest known crystals in the world.

The floor of the cave is almost completely covered with these giant crystals but even more amazing are the selenite giants which protrude from the walls and ceiling and often reach the opposite side of the cavern.

These giant, translucent crystals have kept their morphological perfectness.

The cave is protected with a special door in order to minimize the impact of temperature fluctuations on the crystals. Other parts of Naica Mines are ventilated to bring down the temperature to a bearable 35 °C.

The temperature in the cave might reach 58 °C but for the most part of the time, it is 45 – 50 °C. Even more dangerous is the combination of the temperature and the high levels of humidity reaching 99%.

The human body will not survive in such conditions. There are no guarantees about the safe “working” of the heart and brain, hot water condenses in the lungs and interferes with free breathing, burning the eyes.

If a person loses consciousness in a cave, it is very difficult for others to rescue him. Others are exposed to the same dangerous conditions. Even 10 minutes in the cave will cause irreparable harm to health.

For this purpose, special protective equipment has been developed, and medics closely monitor the health of the cave researchers. The time spent inside these caves is strictly taken into account and very limited.

In Naica Mines have discovered 5 caverns with amazing crystals:

• Cave of the Swords (Cueva de las Espadas”)
• Cave of the Crystals (“Cueva de los Cristales”)
• Queen’s Eye Cavern (“Cueva del Ojo de la Reina”)
• Candles Cave (“Cueva de las Velas”)
• Ice Palace (Palacio de Hielo”)

The Cave of Swords was the first cave discovered. Experts suggest that the crystals in this cave are smaller because this cave is closer to the land surface and the heated water cools faster than in the Cave of Crystals.

The Cave of the Crystals was discovered in April 2000. In 2000, the Delgado brothers also discovered the Queen’s Eye cave at a depth of 300 meters. This is a cavity 8 m wide, lined with giant translucent selenite crystals.

In the same year, Candles Cave with absolutely unique crystals. In 2009, the Ice Palace was discovered at a depth of 150 m. It is not flooded, with smaller crystals, but impressive in shape – incredibly thin needles.

Maybe one day new caves will appear. There is also a possibility that the entrances to further caves are hidden behind the crystals in the Cave of Crystals, but exploring them will require significant damage to the cave.

The natural groundwater level in this place is at a depth of 110 meters. Thus, to maintain activities at the depth of 850 m mining company has to pump the water away. Each minute they are pumped away 55,000 liters.

This water irrigates the desert around Naica town. Thanks to this, agricultural land has developed here over the past decades. One day mining operations will end and groundwater pumps will be switched out.

And that day, the Cave of the Crystals will be filled with hot water again.

Since there is no water in the cave, the crystals quickly deteriorate. Their transparency decreases, cracks form and the crystals become brittle. Researchers find more and more pieces of broken crystals on the cave floor.

When water will be back in the cave, the formation of crystals will start again.

The collision that formed the Chicxulub crater occurred approximately 66 million years ago and is considered one of the most significant catastrophes in Earth’s history.

The exact nature of the object that collided with Earth is not fully understood, but the most likely hypothesis is a collision with an asteroid or comet. This cosmic object likely had a diameter of about 10 km.

A collision of this magnitude resulted in a powerful energetic event. Experts estimate that the impact energy was equivalent to tens of billions of tons of TNT, making it one of the most powerful events in the planet’s history.

The impact of such a cosmic object led to the formation of a massive crater approximately 180 km in diameter. More recent evidence suggests the actual crater is 300 km wide, and the 180 km ring is, in fact, an inner wall of it.

The collision released a tremendous amount of energy, causing fires in surrounding areas and significant temperature increases. A cloud of super-heated dust, ash, and steam would have spread from the crater as the impactor burrowed underground in less than a second.

A large amount of dust, gases, and debris ejected during the impact rose into the atmosphere, blocking sunlight. This led to ecosystem disruption and climate change lasting for a long period.

Excavated material along with pieces of the impactor, ejected out of the atmosphere by the blast, would have been heated to incandescence upon re-entry, broiling the Earth’s surface and possibly igniting wildfires; meanwhile, colossal shock waves would have triggered global earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

It is possible that the collision triggered the formation of massive tsunamis that spread across ocean basins. The impact would have caused a megatsunami over 100 m tall that would have reached what is now Texas and Florida.

These collision consequences, including prolonged darkness, climate cooling, and ecosystem destruction, led to the mass extinction of many species, including dinosaurs.

The emission of dust and particles could have covered the entire surface of the Earth for several years, possibly a decade, creating a harsh environment for living things. The shock production of carbon dioxide caused by the destruction of carbonate rocks would have led to a sudden greenhouse effect.

Over a decade or longer, sunlight would have been blocked from reaching the surface of the Earth by the dust particles in the atmosphere, cooling the surface dramatically. Photosynthesis by plants would also have been interrupted, affecting the entire food chain.

Compared to the Tunguska event or other large meteorite explosions, the impact that formed the Chicxulub crater was much more devastating and had longer-lasting consequences for the planet.

The Chicxulub crater was discovered through aeromagnetic surveys, which allow researchers to study the geological structure and rock composition beneath the Earth’s surface.

In the case of Chicxulub, aeromagnetic surveys revealed anomalies in the magnetic field around the Yucatán Peninsula. These anomalies indicated the presence of unusual geological structures beneath the surface, catching the attention of scientists and researchers.

Subsequent studies and drilling confirmed that the detected anomaly corresponds to an impact crater formed approximately 66 million years ago. This allowed scientists to better understand the crater’s structure, and geological origin, and expand our knowledge of the consequences of cosmic object collisions with Earth.

The discovery of the Chicxulub crater immediately sparked interest among scientists due to its enormous size and young age (approximately 66 million years).

Further research into the crater and its surrounding areas revealed characteristics typical of cosmic impacts, such as high levels of iridium (a metal usually rare on Earth but often present in asteroids and comets).

Scientists have also discovered that during the same period as the formation of the Chicxulub crater, there was a mass extinction event affecting many animal and plant species, including dinosaurs. This event is known as the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary catastrophe.

Based on this data, scientists hypothesized that the collision of an asteroid or comet with Earth led to this mass extinction. This hypothesis was confirmed by models showing how massive dust and gas emissions after the impact could have influenced the planet’s climate and ecological systems.

Further research, including analysis of geological sediments and textbooks, supported the hypothesis that the Chicxulub impact crater and the mass extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary were interconnected.

Thus, the theory that an asteroid or comet impact at Chicxulub caused the extinction of dinosaurs emerged from a combination of geological research and data on mass extinction, and has since gained wide acceptance within the scientific community.

Copper Canyon’s climate varies significantly depending on the elevation. In the higher altitudes, temperatures can be quite cold, especially during the winter months. Snowfall is not uncommon in these areas.

The alpine climate of the mountainous regions of Copper Canyon has moderate temperatures from October to November and March to April. The bottom of the canyons are humid and warm and remain that way throughout the year.

As you descend into the lower parts of the canyon, the climate becomes more temperate and even subtropical in some areas. Summers tend to be warmer, with temperatures in the lower canyons often reaching hot levels.

During the warmest months, April through June, drought is a problem with little rainfall until July when the rainy season begins.

The best time to visit Copper Canyon

The best time to visit Copper Canyon depends on your preferences and the type of activities you plan to engage in.

For those who want to explore the Copper Canyon’s beauty without extreme temperatures, the ideal time is during the spring and fall (March to May and September to November).

The weather is mild, and the landscape is lush and vibrant during these months.

If you’re interested in witnessing the unique culture of the Tarahumara, consider visiting during their major cultural events and festivals, such as Semana Santa or the Ultramarathon races, which are held in late February or early March.

The New Spanish arrived in the Copper Canyon area in the 17th century and encountered the indigenous locals throughout Chihuahua. For the New Spanish, America was a new land to explore for gold and silver and also to spread Christianity.

The New Spanish named the people they encountered “Tarahumara”, derived from the word Rarámuri, which is what the indigenous people call their men. Some scholars theorize that this word may mean ‘The running people’.

During the 17th century, silver was discovered by the Hispanics in the land of the Tarahumara tribe.

Some were enslaved for mining efforts. There were small uprisings by the Tarahumara but to little avail. They eventually were forced off the more desirable lands and up into the canyon cliffs.

The Sierra Tarahumara Occidental region contains numerous species of pine and oak trees. Mexican Douglas-fir trees cover the high plateaus in altitudes over 2,400 m, but due to deforestation in the area, many species of wildlife are endangered.

Cougars live in the remotest of regions and are rarely seen.

After the summer rainy season, these upper regions blossom with wildflowers until October.

From 1,200–to 2,400 m, oak trees grow in huge forests as well as the more shade-tolerant types of trees. In the fall the forests become brilliant with color from Andean alder and poplar trees.

Brushwood and scrubby trees grow on the canyon slopes, which can accommodate the dry season. Huge fig and palm trees thrive at the bottom where water is plentiful and the climate is tropical.

Due to increases in human population, there are many threats to the ecosystems of the Sierra Tarahumara Occidental region.

The government funding to build a “tourist-friendly” atmosphere poses threats to the environment and indigenous cultures. Roads have been built in the former isolated mountainous zones.

Agriculture and grazing as well as the cutting of hardwoods and other trees for firewood has accelerated a soil erosion problem.

Mesquite (Prosopis spp.) and desert ironwood trees are cut and exported primarily to the U.S. for charcoal. Amapa trees yield highly prized lumber for building and furniture making. Other trees are also cut and sold for their high-priced lumber.

Over-harvesting of the forests in the area has caused the extinction of the imperial woodpecker and Mexican wolf.

Approximately, two percent of the original old-growth forest remains.

However, a massive forest-harvesting project in the region has been abandoned, for now, by the World Bank. The Mexican forestry department deemed these species of trees “legally protected,” but enforcement is difficult.

The government has taken measures to halt or slow down the cultivation of opium poppies and cannabis by spraying crops with herbicides, which threaten the populations of many different species.

A large saturnid moth (Rothschildia Cincta) is one of the species that are threatened by the spraying. Their cocoons are used by the native population for ceremonial purposes.

Open-pit mining for copper, gold, and other metals not only produces air pollution from smelters but has been linked to the serious decline of the Tarahumara frog (Rana tarahumarae).

Every river system has been dammed causing fresh water shortages in nearby desert communities.

An enormous dam is being constructed on the Rio Fuerte, which poses major environmental problems and may lead to massive losses of tropical forests and habitats.

Conservation is underway but remains informal and slow. Mexico has environmental laws but suffers from a lack of financial resources. Enforcement has been lax or non-existent.

Agencies are actively trying to increase the protection of natural preserves.

Copper Canyon’s traditional inhabitants are the Tarahumara or Rarámuri.

With no official census, the population of the Rarámuri people probably ranges between 35,000 and 70,000.

Many Rarámuri reside in the cooler, mountainous regions during the hot summer months and migrate deeper into the canyons in the cooler winter months, where the climate is more temperate.

Their survival strategies have been to occupy areas that are too remote for city people, way off the beaten path, to remain isolated and independent, so as to avoid losing their culture.

Their diet is largely domestic agrarian but does consist of meat from domesticated cows, chickens and goats, wild game, and freshwater fish. Corn (maize) is the most important staple of the Rarámuri’s diet.

The Rarámuri people are known for their endurance running. Living in the canyons, they travel great vertical distances, which they often do by running nonstop for hours.

A popular Rarámuri community race called Rarajipari is played by kicking a wooden ball along the paths of the steep canyons.

Tourism is a growing industry for Copper Canyon, but the acceptance of it is debated in the local communities.

Some communities accept government funding for building roads, restaurants, and lodging to make the area attractive for tourists.

Many other groups of Rarámuri maintain their independence by living in areas that are as far away from city life as possible. Their way of life is protected by the mountainous landscape.

There are many other ways to explore Copper Canyon such as hiking, biking, driving, or horseback riding.

The most popular way is by train, as the Ferrocarril Chihuahua al Pacífico or ChePe, runs along the main canyon called Canyon Urique, between Chihuahua and Los Mochis, on the Gulf of California.

The Chihuahua al Pacifico began in the late 19th century.

The revolution, lack of funding, and the overall difficulty of building a railroad over such terrain hindered its completion until 1961.

The railroad comprises 405 miles of rails with 39 bridges and 86 tunnels. The total trip takes approximately 15 hours and passes through towns, as well as the towering cliffs of the canyons.

Along the railway, many Tarahumarans lay out their food, crafts, and other wares for sale.

Mexico established the Parque Nacional Barranca del Cobre (Copper Canyon National Park) to showcase this remote area. The park is located in the municipalities of Batopilas, Bocoyna, Guachochi, and Urique.

The Basaseachic Falls National Park around the Basaseachic Falls is located within the canyon area.

Among the villages located in or on the Copper Canyon are:

Bahuichivo, ChePe train stop for Cerocahui, Urique, Piedras Verdes, Tubares.

Basaseachi, located near the pour off of 246 m Cascada Basaseachi in the Barranca Candameña. The towns and ranchos of San Lorenzo, Cahuisori, and Huahumar encircle the rim of the canyon, also home to Mexico’s highest waterfall Piedra Volada.

It is on the main Federal Highway 16 between Chihuahua, Chihuahua, and Hermosillo, Sonora. The Rio Candameña is a tributary of the Rio Mayo which flows into the Gulf of California.

Batopilas, elevation 600 m, is a town on the Batopilas River at the bottom of a canyon; first established by the Spanish around 1632 to mine silver. It is located 30 km southeast of Urique.

Bocoyna, 30 km east of Creel, and on the eastern escarpment of the continental divide.

The nearby Rio Conchos flows into the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande) on the Mexico-Texas border. Carichí, Sisoguichi, and Panalachi are important Tarahumara settlements on the Rio Conchos drainage system.

Cerocahui, 14 km S. of the train stop at Bahuichivo.

Creel, atop the canyon and, at 2,340 meters altitude, marking one of the highest points on the ChePe railroad route (San Juanito is higher at 2,400 meters; a central point for commerce and tourism.

Divisadero is a key train stop and vista point with amazing views down into the Urique Canyon of the Barranca del Cobre. The ChePe train allows a 15-20 minute stop for visitors to enjoy the view.

Divisadero and nearby Areponapuchi (located 4 km south) are major canyon-rim trailheads for hiking into the Rio Urique canyon.

This high mesa is home to three tourist-class hotels strategically located on the canyon rim, and several low-budget guesthouses offering basic accommodations with meals included.

Témoris is a dual town located 400 m apart in elevation. The ChePe train traverses the valley 3 times including a mile-long tunnel to gain elevation. Located on the Rio Septentrion, lower Temoris is at 1000 m.

Urique, 560 m. Located at the bottom of the canyon rim below Bahuichivo, on the Urique River. It is 30 km NW of Batopilas, now connected by a rough road.

The geyser type is a calcitic chemical deposit.

• Height: 13 m
• Crater Diameter: 8 m
• Base Exterior Diameter: 23 m
• Weight: approx. 400 tons

Mode of formation: emanating geothermal waters with occasional high-pressured bursts

A description of Cuexcomate from the year 1585 says:

“at one league from this city, close to the bridge that they call Cholula, there is in a large grassland… in circular shape, a rock of 6 or 7 estados high, at the top of which there is a great mouth as if it were made to hold a waterwheel.

The which is very deep, and at the bottom of which there is foul smelling water, a very important thing to note: there they say that in the heathen days they threw in (indios) natives to be sacrificed to their idols”

Cuexcomate was formed, in an area that was to become the town of La Libertad, by hydrothermal circulation prior to the 1064 eruption of Popocatépetl. La Libertad was incorporated into the city of Puebla in 1943.

On November 27, 1970, a plaque was placed to commemorate the founding of La Libertad around the sides of the Cuexcomate geyser.

In ancient times, indigenous threw the bodies of suicide victims into the crater because they did not deserve to be mourned or buried. The people living around the geyser were said to be ‘children of the devil’ or ‘under the rule of the devil’.

The park is located in the Sierra Madre del Sur, primarily in the northeast part of Guerrero state. This section of the Sierra Madre del Sur is made of rock, mostly limestone, that was formed under oceans millions of years ago.

The caverns extend through the municipalities of Pilcaya, Tetipac, and Taxco of Guerrero state, and extend into Morelos state in the municipality of Coatlán del Río.

The park extends over 2,700 hectares of land and is located southwest of Mexico City, near the silversmithing town of Taxco. This is a well-known cave system in Mexico and is popular for caving.

The park is visited by about 350,000 people annually, generating an income of about 8 million pesos each year.

Cacahuamilpa is one of the largest cave systems in the world. It is a “live” cave system, meaning that groundwater still filters down into it, and that the formations there are still growing.

Inside the cavern system are ninety large “salons” separated by large natural rock walls and connected to one another via a central gallery.

However, only about twenty of these are fully explored and open to the public. Most of these salons are located under the Cerro de la Corona, a limestone mountain ridge borehole opening.

These salons average about forty meters wide and vary in height from twenty to 81 meters.

Most have names that reflect the major formations found in them such as the Goat Salon, the Throne Salon, and the Cathedral Salon.

All the openings have numerous rock formations growing from both the ceiling and the floor.

One of the drier salons has been dubbed the “Auditorium”. It has a large flat floor and has been outfitted with seats.

It is rented out for events and has been the site for a number of concerts including one in 2007 by Miguel Bosé and one by the Acapulco Philharmonic Orchestra in 2009.

Tours of the open cave system run every hour and last about two hours. On the walkway to the entrance, there are a couple of amate trees (Ficus Insipida) with their roots wound around the rocky walls of Limontitla Canyon.

The entrance is a large arch about forty meters wide and twelve meters tall. From the entrance, one descends about twenty meters to the level of the caverns.

The path has a mostly level cement walkway, and there is artificial illumination on both the path and parts of the salons. However, since it is a live cave, the high humidity can make the trek uncomfortable for some people.

At least parts of the cave system have been known for centuries, and parts have been occupied since pre-Hispanic times. Excavations in the caverns have produced fragments of pottery.

This area was home to the Olmec people, and later the Chontal tribe. Both peoples used the caves for ceremonial purposes.

The original name of the caves was “Salachi”. The current name, “Cacahuamilpa,” comes from a location near the cave entrance and means “peanut field.”

After the Conquest, the existence of the caves was kept hidden from the Spaniards by the indigenous peoples.

Credit for the “discovery” of the caves is given to Manuel Sainz de la Peña Miranda, who used the caves in 1834 to hide from Spanish authorities, which prompted a thorough search of the area.

In 1866, Dominik Bilimek and Maximiliano von Habsburg made the first bio-speleological visit to the cave. F. Bonet surveyed and mapped the cave up to 1,380 meters in 1922 and it was opened to the public during that decade.

The first scientific expedition to the caves was organized by the Secretary of the French Legation in 1935, and the national park was established in 1936 by President Lázaro Cárdenas.

Guided tours began in 1969, and the second survey in 1987 established the cave system’s length at between four and five kilometers.

In one of the salons is a gravesite. The story behind this grave is that an Englishman got lost exploring the cave and eventually died of starvation. He was accompanied by a dog, which he sent to get aid.

However, no one on the outside paid any attention to the dog, so it returned to the cave to die along with its master. When the remains were found, they were buried there with rock and a simple cross.

The Grutas de Carlos Pacheco is located 400 m to the south of the Grutas de Cacahuamilpa. They were named after Mexican General Carlos Pacheco, who fought against the French Intervention in Mexico.

Just beyond the entrance, the cave divides into two branches. The infiltration of water into these caverns is minimal and parts are entirely dry. For this reason, this is considered to be a fossilized cave.

The stalagmites and stalactites here stopped forming hundreds of years ago. However, a number of these formations are very uncommon and some seem to defy gravity.

These caves can be visited by arranging a tour separate from the tour of the Cacahuamilpa Caverns.

The park has two underground rivers called the Chontalcoatlán, which is eight km long, and the San Jeronimo, which is 12 km long. The tunnels that have been formed by these rivers are still completely active, as the water continues to cut away little by little at the rock.

Both have areas with rocks and sandy beaches on each side and the darkness is complete in much of the tunnels’ lengths. The San Jeronimo River has its origins in natural springs that lie in San Pedro Zictepec, Mexico State.

The walls of the cavity in which it flows are up to eighty meters high. It is possible for visitors to explore this river, which requires about seven hours to do so; however, it is easier for the two to explore as it is more level.

The waters of the Chontalcoatlán originate from the Nevado de Toluca. Its descent underground has carved out an entrance fifty meters high. It is also possible to visit this natural tunnel although it is necessary to get to the entrance by vehicle. It is relatively easy to travel to a point called La Caraboya or La Ventana.

However, after this point, the river descends steeply and those not in good physical condition are not advised to continue. Just after the two rivers reemerge above ground, they join to form the Amacuazac River, which is a tributary of the Balsas River.

The Limontitla Botanical Garden exists to demonstrate the native flora that exists in this subtropical, mostly deciduous forest. Tours of the garden can be done alone or with a guide to explain the species on display here.

The best time to visit the garden is during the rainy season (approx. June to October) when everything is green and in bloom.

The park also has a large swimming pool located at a point that overlooks the place where the San Jeronimo and Chontalcoatlán Rivers meet to form the Amacuazac.

The Marietas Islands were originally formed many thousands of years ago by volcanic activity, and are completely uninhabited.

The islands are about an hour-long boat ride west-northwest from the coast of Puerto Vallarta and are visited daily by hundreds of tourists, yet no one can legally set foot on the islands.

In the early 1900s, the Mexican government began conducting military testing on the islands because no one lived there. Many bombings and large explosions took place on the islands causing caves and rock formations to be created.

After a massive international outcry, started by scientist Jacques Cousteau in the late 1960s, the government eventually decided to label the islands a national park and therefore protected against any fishing, hunting, or human activity.

Situated in a sort of open sun-drenched crater, this beach is affectionately nicknamed the “hidden beach” or “beach of love” (Playa del Amor), it is accessible only when the tide is low.

The Islands are home to 44 different species of plants and wildlife. This has led to the inclusion of National Park in RAMSAR sites its designation as a UNESCO MAB Biosphere Reserve.

Many species of seabirds use the location as feeding and breeding grounds, these include blue-footed boobies as well as the red-billed tropicbirds.

It also has many different varieties of coral, which, in turn, is home to a large variety of reef fish species. The island ecosystem is also home to dolphins, Manta Rays, and a number of tropical fish. Eels and many species of sea turtles are also found in the reefs and the many caves that dot the site.

During the winter months, humpback whales arrive at the islands and can be observed all through winter.

Protection by the government has created an environment conducive to the development of the marine ecosystem and is a popular location for snorkeling and scuba diving.

Not even during whale watching tours, people often report seeing sea turtles, manta rays, octopus, wild dolphins, humpback whales, and thousands of species of tropical fish around the islands. The islands are also home to a few thousand birds, with species such as the blue-footed booby.

Currently, the Mexican government allows only a few companies to go to the islands and allows the landing of passengers onto one secluded beach with the necessary permit from SEMARNAT.

From Punta de Mita, small boats do tours through the islands to see the wildlife of this region. From December to March gray and humpback whales can be observed that come from Alaska to give birth off the coast of Nayarit.

It has been estimated in studies carried out at the University of Guadalajara that the so-called “hidden beach” or the “love beach” can accommodate up to 116 visitors a day without degrading.

The carrying capacity of the entire park is 625 visitors a day. (These studies used the antiquated system of Tourism carrying capacity to estimate visitors). However, the actual number of visitors is typically three of four times this limit with more than 2500 visitors landing on it each day during 2016.

During the Easter holidays, more than 250 boats landed on the island per day, some of them carrying as many as 400 tourists. This has been due to recent interest in the Island.

The number of tourists in 2012 was only 27,500, but this skyrocketed to 127,372 in 2015.

In May 2016, the National Commission of Protected Natural Areas, the national environmental authority in Mexico announced that the Islands and their beaches shall be closed to the general public from May 9.

There have been several reasons presented for this closure, although all of them stem from the increased number of tourists visiting the site. One of the main reasons for the closure is that the coral in the area is being destroyed.

The cause of coral destruction is thought to be a combination of global warming, the presence of boat oil in the water due to excessive tour trips, and physical destruction due to the dropping of anchors up to 250 times a day.

The structure of the Islands and the famous beach is composed of two types of volcanic rocks. The interior is made up of “explosive rocks” which erode quickly and the exterior “shell” is made up of a more resilient form of rock which can withstand erosion to a greater degree.

This does not mean that the island is not susceptible to erosion. According to various studies carried out in 2014 it has been estimated that the Island only has a few thousand more years before it will erode away. However, the rate of erosion is being accelerated by human impact and according to officials, “Excessive tourism could lead to a more rapid destruction of this sanctuary.”

Another problem is the increase in solid waste pollution and hydrocarbon pollution. These pose a threat not only to the coral but to larger animals as well. even the humpback whales have felt the negative impact of hydrocarbon pollution.

The Mexican authorities have outlined several plans to undo the damage done to the beaches and the islands. These will focus not only on repairing the damage already caused by human hands but will also focus on mitigating any further human interference in the ecosystem.

The first part of the plan is to “replant” the coral in order to compensate for the coral that has been destroyed. This is done by attaching new coral to the already existing coral and letting it grow for 3 to 4 months. Another major effort focuses on limiting the damaging human impact on the sanctuary when the islands reopen for the general public and tourists.

According to the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP) after the Islands have been reopened for tourism tourist overload may be mitigated by placing a special floating dock in the bay area which will limit the ships that arrive. another measure under consideration is to place buoys around the fragile ecosystem in order to control the number of visitors that are arriving.

A gaping hole in the surface of the lush green island opens onto a secret beach, with ample shade, sun, and crystal-clear water.

Playa del Amor, more commonly known as the Hidden Beach, is a feature of one of the Marieta Islands – a group of small uninhabited islands a few miles off the coast of Mexico. They are very popular tourist destinations because of the abundant marine life populations due to the islands being protected from fishing and hunting by the Mexican government. The depth around the islands is between 70 and 110 feet.

Situated in a sort of open sun-drenched crater, this beach is affectionately nicknamed the “hidden beach” or “beach of love” (Playa del Amor), it is accessible only when the tide is low.
The famous beach looks like something out of a fantasy novel: a wide, sandy cavern with the blue waters of the Pacific rushing in. The islands are an archipelago, a chain of land formations formed by underwater volcano eruptions. They themselves are natural wonders, but it was something other than volcanic activity that brought the burrowed beach to light.

The Marietas Islands were originally formed many thousands of years ago by volcanic activity, and are completely uninhabited. The islands are about an hour-long boat ride west-northwest from the coast of Puerto Vallarta and are visited daily by hundreds of tourists, yet no one can legally set foot on the islands.

It is rumored that the hole that created the Hidden Beach was a result of deliberate bombings. The Marieta Islands have always been completely uninhabited, making them ideal sites for military testing by the Mexican government. Beginning in the early 1900s, weapons and artillery were tested on the Marieta Islands, a safe distance from Mexican citizens but not so safe for Marieta’s topography. Test bombs are the known cause for many caves and rock formations on the island, possibly including the Hidden Beach. Many bombings and large explosions took place on the islands causing amazing caves and rock formations to be created.

In the 1960s, scientist Jacques Cousteau led a protest against harmful human activity on the islands. In 2005, the islands were finally named a national park, Parque Nacional Islas Marietas, making swimming, kayaking, sunbathing, and other forms of recreation the only activity. Extensive military testing damaged flora and fauna on the island for decades, but many years of peace have replenished the islands’ pristine waters and marine life.

The Hidden Beach is invisible from the outside and is only accessible through a long water tunnel that links the beach to the Pacific Ocean. There are approximately six feet of space above the water level, so visitors can arrive at the beach by swimming or kayaking. The islands remain uninhabited but are frequently visited by tourists who come to enjoy the diverse marine wildlife and the unique tropical Eden of Playa del Amor.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

From Mexico City, it’s a two-hour drive east to the municipality of Nanacamilpa.
There are a few local businesses that offer the firefly viewing experience.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Popocatépetl comes from the Nahuatl words popōca “it smokes” and tepētl “mountain”, meaning “smoking mountain”.

The volcano is also referred to by Mexicans as El Popo. The alternate nickname Don Goyo comes from the mountain’s association in the lore of the region with San Gregorio. Goyo is the short form of Gregorio.

The crater’s walls vary from 600 to 840 m in height.

The generally symmetrical volcano is modified by the sharp-peaked remnant of an earlier volcano.

At least 3 previous major cones were destroyed by gravitational failure during the Pleistocene, producing massive debris-avalanche deposits covering broad areas south of the volcano.

The modern volcano was constructed to the south of the late Pleistocene to Holocene El Fraile cone.

Three major Plinian eruptions (the last occurring around 800 AD) have occurred at Popocatépetl since the mid-Holocene, accompanied by pyroclastic flows and volumetric lahars that engulfed the basins beneath the volcano.

The volcano is about 730,000 years old. The elevation at the peak is 5,450 m. The volcano is cone-shaped with a diameter of 25 km at its base. The crater is elliptical with an orientation northeast-southwest.

Popocatépetl is currently an active volcano after being dormant for about half of the last century. In 1991 the volcano’s activity increased and since 1993 smoke can be seen constantly emanating from the crater.

Popocatépetl has been one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico. Since 1354, 18 eruptions have been recorded. In 1927 a major eruption occurred, thus beginning a period of rest.

Then, on December 21, 1994, after several years of inactivity, the volcano registered an explosion that produced gas and ash that were transported by the prevailing winds more than 25 km away.

Currently, its activity is moderate, but constant, with the emission of fumaroles, composed of gases and water vapor, and sudden and unexpected minor expulsions of ash and volcanic material.

The last violent eruption of the volcano was recorded in December 2000, which, following the predictions of scientists, led to the evacuation of thousands of people in the areas near the volcano.

On December 25, 2005, a new explosion occurred in the volcano’s crater, causing a column of smoke and ash three kilometers high and the expulsion of lava.

On June 3, 2011, Popocatépetl once again emitted large fumaroles without causing damage. On November 20, 2011, a large explosion took place that shook the earth and was heard in the towns near the slopes, but without major alteration.

The volcano registered a fumarole of water vapor and ash on the morning of January 16, 2012, without this representing risks to the population surrounding the colossus.

On April 16, 2012, was raised the volcanic alert traffic light from yellow phase 2 to yellow phase 3 due to the great activity that has been occurring, without it thus far representing a serious danger to society.

At 3:23 on April 30, 2013, the Popocatépetl volcano threw incandescent fragments 800 meters from the crater on the northeast slope, reported the National Center for Disaster Prevention (CENAPRED).

On May 12, 2013, after the strong roar that was felt in the town of Atlixco, the volcanic alert light was changed from yellow phase 2 to phase 3. On June 2, 2013, CENAPRED returned the alert level to yellow phase 2.

On June 17 and 18, the volcano recorded several larger explosive events, recording fumaroles that reached 4 km above the level of the crater and expulsions of incandescent rock that reached the slopes on the South-West side of the colossus.

The alert remained yellow in phase 2.

The volcano became active on July 7, 2013, releasing ash clearly visible in nearby towns. The ash also reached Mexico City, expelling pyroclastic flows and incandescence. The volcanic traffic light turned yellow in phase 3.

The volcano registered an explosion on January 22, 2019, releasing incandescent material and ash. This explosion could be felt in areas surrounding the volcano (areas of the state of Puebla and the State of Mexico).

Once upon a time, in pre-Hispanis times, there were two young people named Itzaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl. Itzaccíhuatl was a beautiful princess from the Tlaxcala, and Popocatépetl was a brave Aztec warrior.

Both lived at a time when Tlaxcala was at war with its cruel enemies, the Aztecs.

Popocatépetl deeply loved Itzaccíhuatl and wanted to marry her. Popocatépetl asked to marry Itzaccíhuatl. The leader agreed but had one condition: Popocatépetl had to return safely from the war to marry her.

So, Popocatépetl went off to battle, leaving Itzaccíhuatl behind, eagerly awaiting his return. However, a jealous rival of Popocatépetl spread false rumors and told Itzaccíhuatl that her beloved had died in the fight.

Heartbroken and deceived, Itzaccíhuatl couldn’t bear the sorrow and passed away.

Soon, Popocatépetl returned from the battle. But upon his arrival, he received the devastating news of the death of his beloved. Overcome with grief, he wandered for days and nights, searching for a way to honor their love.

He decided to build a great tomb beneath the sun, piling up ten hills to create a massive mountain. After completing this monumental task, he took the lifeless body of his princess and placed her on the mountaintop.

He kissed her for the last time and, holding a smoky torch, knelt by her side to watch over her forever.

Since then, they have remained together, facing each other. As time passed, snow covered their bodies, turning them into two enormous volcanoes that stood unchanged until the end of time.

***

There’s another legend connected to this volcano, and it’s about a friendly nickname given to the mountain by the people living nearby. They call this volcano “Don Goyo,” which is short for Gregorio.

It’s said that from time to time, an elderly man appears in various villages in the area and introduces himself as Don Gregorio or Gregorio Chino. The locals believe that this old man is the embodiment of the volcano.

Locals believe that Don Goyo, the old man, comes to make sure that the people living in the area act with honesty and show respect to the volcano. They believe that if they do so, good luck will come their way.

Montículo Cinerítico (front) and Bárcena (behind), volcanic cones on San Benedicto, one of the Revillagigedo Islands. Bárcena has existed only since 1952. The total area is almost 158 sq km, spread over an east-to-west extent of about 420 km.

A naval station in the south of Socorro Island has a population of 45 (staff). On Clarión is a small naval garrison with 9 men.

The islands are otherwise uninhabited.

The islands are named after Don Juan Vicente de Güemes, 2nd Count of Revillagigedo, the 53rd viceroy of New Spain.

The three eastern islands are called the inner islands.

They fall in the time zone UTC-7 (Mountain Time), while the major part of Colima is UTC-6 (Central Time Zone). Clarión is comparatively far to the west, by more than 200 km in comparison with the inner islands, and in UTC-8 (Pacific Time Zone).

The Revillagigedo Islands are one of three Mexican island groups in the Pacific Ocean that are not on the continental shelf; the others are Guadalupe Island and Rocas Alijos.

16 to 19 century

No evidence of human habitation on Socorro exists before its discovery by Spanish explorers.

Hernando de Grijalva and his crew discovered an uninhabited island on 19 December 1533 and named it Santo Tomás (Socorro Island) and on 28 December they discovered Isla de Los Inocentes (San Benedicto) which owed its name to having been found on the day of the Holy Innocents.

In November 1542, Ruy López de Villalobos, while exploring new routes across the Pacific, rediscovered Inocentes and Santo Tomás and charted the latter as Anublada (“Cloudy”). Villalobos was the first to report sightings of Roca Partida Island giving it its present-day name.

In 1608, Martín Yánez de Armida, in charge of another expedition, visited Anublada and changed its name to Socorro.

In 1779 José Camacho was the first to report a sighting of the island remaining, which he charted as Santa Rosa (“Saint Rose”). Santa Rosa was later renamed Clarion after the vessel commanded by Henry Gyzelaar at that time.

The Revillagigedo Islands have been visited by a number of other explorers:

Domingo del Castillo (1541), Miguel Pinto (1772), Alexander von Humboldt (1811), Benjamin Morrell (1825), Sir Edward Belcher (1839) who made the first botanical collections, and Reeve, who witnessed the eruption of Mount Evermann in 1848.

On 25 July 1861, President Benito Juárez signed a decree awarding territorial control over the four islands to the state of Colima. His plan was to build an offshore penitentiary on Isla Socorro; although this never happened, the decree whereby they were attached to Colima has never been repealed.

In 1865, the island was explored by ornithologist Andrew Jackson Grayson, who discovered the Socorro dove, Socorro mockingbird, and the Socorro elf owl which were later given scientific names in his honor.

20 century

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Dr. Barton Warren Evermann, director of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, California, promoted the scientific exploration of the islands. The most comprehensive biological collections were obtained at this time.

The volcano on Isla Socorro was renamed in his honor.

In 1957 the Mexican Navy established a naval base on Socorro and has had a permanent presence on the island since then. A tiny outpost also exists on Clarión, as noted above.

On 21 March 1972, Pablo Silva García became the first Governor of Colima to visit his state’s island territories. A plaque was unveiled to mark the event and cement Colima’s claim.

The seas surrounding the larger islands are popular with scuba divers.

A variety of marine life such as cetaceans, sharks, and manta rays can be observed. Visitors usually stay aboard expedition vessels during their visit to the islands, which is desirable from an ecological standpoint to prevent the introduction of further invasive species.

The islands are occasionally visited by amateur radio operators, who usually use the ITU prefix XF4. Because of their distance from the mainland, for award credit, they are considered to be an “entity” separate from Mexico.

Expeditions from organizations engaged in biological conservation of the islands visit the islands for fieldwork on a regular basis.

No tourism facilities exist; the islands have no reliable sources of freshwater of their own.

21 century

On 24 November 2017, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto created North America’s largest marine protected area around the Revillagigedo Islands.

This protected area covers 57 thousand square miles or 150,000 square kilometers around the islands and bans fishing, mining, and tourism development in the protected area and on the islands.

The Revillagigedo Islands are home to many endemic plant and animal species, and are sometimes called Mexico’s “little Galápagos”. They are recognized as a distinct terrestrial ecoregion, part of the Neotropic ecozone.
Socorro is the most diverse in flora, fauna, and topography.

The Mexican Government established the islands as a Biosphere Reserve on June 4, 1994.

According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 14 of the islands’ 16 generally accepted resident taxa of land birds as well as one seabird are endemic, as are all of the islands’ native terrestrial vertebrates.

The latter, however, consists only of a whip snake, a night snake, and two Urosaurus iguanids.

Numerous seabird taxa breed no further north(east)wards than San Benedicto; storm petrels are notably absent as breeders though they breed in the region and visit the islands to forage.

Albatrosses are also not normally found here. Among land birds, the absence of the house finch, widespread on northeastern Pacific offshore islands, is the most conspicuous one.

Apart from the native birds, migrant shorebirds and others are often found on the islands.

Bahia Azufre (Sulfur Bay) on Clarión seems to be a favorite stopover location, as it is one of the few long stretches of beach on the islands; mostly, the shoreline is steep cliffs. The archipelago is also a part of wintering grounds for humpback whales in the north pacific.

Socorro has numerous endemic plant taxa, whereas Clarión which is farthest from land has but a few.

The San Benedicto ecosystem was nearly wiped out in the devastating eruption of Bárcena volcano on August 1, 1952, but has since recovered; apparently, just the San Benedicto rock wren became entirely extinct.

Most if not all native plants found on San Benedicto today are shared with Clarión, not with the closer Socorro to the south, due to the prevailing winds and ocean currents. The native flora of Clarión is about equally shared with other large islands.

As opposed to the interchange between the islands, the animals and plants that colonized them initially are apparently all from mainland populations generally to the northeastward of the Revillagigedos.

Plants are most often derived from Baja California founder populations, whereas the endemic nonavian reptiles seem to be rather derived directly from mainland populations of the Sonora-Sinaloa area.

The ancestors of the islands’ terrestrial birds probably came from the general area of southern North and northern Central America.

As illustrated by the fact that no endemic land bird taxon occurs on more than one island and the cases of the Socorro and Clarión wrens as well as the Socorro dove and Clarión mourning dove, each bird population seems to have arisen independently.

“The future of the avifauna of the islands appears to be secure at present. There are no human inhabitants, and no mammals of any kind except the moderate and apparently stable population of sheep on Socorro.”

The unique ecology of the islands has since then come under threat from these and other exotic species. Sheep were introduced to Socorro in 1869, and cats have become established after 1953, probably in the early 1970s.

Pigs were introduced to Clarión in 1979, and rabbits became feral at some earlier date.

Several endemic species of Socorro are now threatened with extinction. The Socorro mockingbird numbers less than 400 individuals altogether. The endemic Socorro parakeet and Townsend’s shearwater, are also endangered.

The Socorro dove is now extinct in the wild but is being bred in captivity. The elf owl’s Socorro subspecies Micrathene whitneyi graysoni appears to be extinct. Other plant and animal taxa in the archipelago are also considered threatened or nearly so.

A number of conservation initiatives are dedicated to halting the destruction of the native ecosystems of the islands.

Dr. Harmunt Walter of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Dr. Luis F. Baptista of the California Academy of Sciences have coordinated breeding and reintroduction efforts for the Socorro dove since 1988, through the Island Endemics Institute.

The Comité Científico para la Conservación y Restauración del Archipiélago Revillagigedo (“Scientific Committee for the Conservation and Restoration of the Revillagigedo Islands”) was founded in 1996 and is a committee representing several organizations, including the Island Conservation & Ecology Group, Island Endemics Institute, the University of Missouri–St. Louis (UMSL), the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), and others.

It is chaired by Dr. Walter and Dr. Luis Medrano of UNAM is its secretary.

The committee has been advocating the removal of the exotic species from the islands, especially the estimated 2000 sheep on Socorro, to allow the islands’ ecology to recover, and the adoption of a management plan to promote the recovery of the island’s native species, including the reintroduction of the Socorro dove.

Brattstrom and Howell who gave the optimistic outlook in 1956 went on to caution that “it may be hoped that the Mexican government will guard against the introduction of mammals such as rabbits, cats, goats and others that have invariably brought disaster to the flora and fauna of insular regions.”

On 25 November 2017, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto acted to protect the biodiversity of the region by creating North America’s largest marine protected area around the islands and prohibiting mining, fishing, and tourism development on or near the islands.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

Composition and creation of the dune fields

The white-to-tan sands of the dune fields are almost pure silica.

On average, the sand contains 90-95% quartz and 5-10% mixed rock grains.

The particle shapes are nodular and spheroid. They were formed by airflow erosion of rocks that created small fragments that were then carried away by the wind, to be deposited in natural land depressions.

Another factor assisting in the formation of the dunes is the abrupt changes in temperature that exist in the desert, which assisted in the breaking up of surface rock into sand grains.

The most dramatic portion of the Samalayuca dune fields lies east and west of Mexican Federal Highway 45 and the parallel Mexican Railway in an area 30 to 60 miles south of Juarez.

This major north-south highway and railroad, between Ciudad Juarez and the city of Chihuahua, crosses through this dune area, and low dunes are visible for many kilometers on each side of the highway.

The dramatic high dunes that exist close to the village of Samalayuca may be seen in the distance from Federal Highway 45. These dune fields are formed by the prevailing wind from the northwest dropping sand particles in the lee of the Sierra Samalayuca (Samalayuca Mountains).

Besides the high dunes appearing in the area of the village of Samalayuca, the dune fields lie in several other areas of the Samalayuca desert to the southwest and southeast of Ciudad Juarez.

A lesser-known part of the Salamayuca dune field extends to the west from Samalayuca into the area southwest of Ciudad Juárez.

This area (lying west of Mexico Federal Highway 45) is larger than the more dramatic high dune area near Samalayuca and comprises the bulk of the Samalayuca desert area.

These dune fields extend to the north where they lie across the (now abandoned) right of way of the defunct Mexico North Western Railway (Compañía del Ferrocarril Nor-Oeste de México) and extend into the Chihuahua municipality of Ascension.

Smaller dune fields also extend to the east from the town of Salamayuca, into the municipality of Guadalupe.

Endemic species

In large dune systems, many species of plants and animals evolve and adapt to the harsh environment, and thus become unique and endemic. The Samalayuca dunes are no exception.

They provide the habitat for 248 vegetal and 154 animal species, most of them endemic.

The area is therefore biologically unique on a global scale and is receiving greater attention as a biosphere. Most of the known endemic species in the Samalayuca Dunes are plants and various native bee species.

Scarcity of water

When traveling the route that led through the sand dunes near the village of Samalayuca water was critical. The only reliable water sources lay miles to the north and south of the sand dunes near Samalayuca. Water supplies near the dunes were very scarce.

To be significantly delayed in the Salamayuca Sand Dunes in a dry year with limited water supplies could be fatal.

There were springs that flowed near the present settlement of Samalayuca on the northern edge of this stretch of sand. As stated below these springs were not reliable sources of water for two reasons.

These springs near Salamalayuca could be too saline for consumption.

Recent surveys confirm that three springs exist in the area of Samalayuca, but the saline content renders two of them unfit for drinking. Water for those currently living in Samalayuca comes from hand-dug shallow wells.

Travelers in the 1840s reported that the Ojo de Samalayuca (Samalayuca Springs) were seasonal.

In the dry season of a dry year, these springs would cease to flow, which would leave no water source on the trail between the areas of El Paso del Norte in the north and the village of Carrizal in the south.

Historical name

The sand dune area has traditionally been referred to as “Los Médanos” or simply, the dunes. The name Samalayuca Dune Fields is of more recent origin. The name “Los Médanos” is more commonly used particularly in historical accounts.

Recently and increasingly the dune fields are referred to by Spanish and non-Spanish speakers as Médanos de Samalayuca.

Name origin

The field and the desert get their name from the town of Samalayuca, Chihuahua.

There are historic springs in the area, which accounts for the location of the town. The town is adjacent to the dramatic high dunes that lie some 52 km directly south of Ciudad Juárez just east of Mexico Federal Highway 45.

These high dunes are formed by the prevailing winds from the northwest dropping sands in the lee of Cerro de Samalayuca (Samalayuca Mountain), which lies close to Samalayuca village.

Experiences of travelers in the 1800s

In order to avoid the delay of traveling around the dune fields on the detour, many travelers on the trail between Chihuahua and El Paso del Norte elected to go directly across the dune fields.

From the 1600s through the 1800s merchants, explorers, soldiers, and random tourists traveling on the Chihuahua trail found passage through the Samalayuca dunes difficult and dangerous.

Throughout this period of three centuries, the Apache Indians carried on their off-and-on guerrilla war with the encroaching Spanish, operating out of the Sierra Madre mountains to the west.

They sporadically attacked and sometimes laid waste to haciendas/ranches and small settlements in the area.

As part of this conflict, the Apaches kept watching over the trail across the dunes, as well as the water holes in and around the dune fields, in order to rob and kill vulnerable groups of travelers.

Even as late as 1882 travelers were warned to avoid this point (Los Médanos) of all others while traveling through Chihuahua, and to take the alternative route around the dunes area, though some 60 miles long, because this place is attended by great danger from the attacks of the Apaches, who well know the helpless condition of animals passing and take the opportunity to attack parties.

While animals and persons found footing and traction to be difficult in the loose sands of the dunes, what was most dreaded was the difficulty of hauling loaded wagons or carts through the sand.

These vehicles could bog down at their hubs. Some merchants going south from El Paso started out with carts loaded with goods but would hire a mule train to accompany them.

On arrival at the dunes, the goods from the carts would be loaded on the mule train and the emptied carts would then be pulled over the dunes. On the south side of the dunes, the carts would be reloaded and proceed.

In 1842 George W. Kendall made a diary as he traveled through the dunes. He was one of a group of political prisoners, who were marched down the Chihuahua trail, guarded by units of the Mexican army.

He observed high “mountains” of loose sand along the trail. He noted that horses would sink in the sand to their fetlocks, and walking in the sand exhausted men and animals. The two-wheeled carreteras would bog down in the sand and to pull them through this area required doubling the teams.

Kendall also noted a large stone, weighing some 200 pounds directly in the path through the dune fields.

Over many years passing gangs of muleteers had superstitiously adopted the custom of lifting the stone and moving it farther along, each gang moving it a few feet at a time towards Mexico City.

Their recurrent activity, continuing over many decades was reported to have moved the stone some 14 miles.

In 1846 an English soldier of fortune reported the track through the dunes littered with skeletons and dead bodies of oxen, mules, and horses. He reported the sand to be knee-deep and constantly shifting.

The dunes caused death to animals and humans. “On one ridge the upper half of a human skeleton protruded from the sand”.

Traveling by night avoided the punishing desert heat during the summer months, and in 1846 a German scientist Friedrich Adolph Wislizenus described such a night passage through the dunes.

Flashes of lightning illuminated ghostly images of slow-moving wagons, riders on horseback wrapped in blankets, and travelers on foot walking or sleeping beside the track.

Quiet prevailed except for the cries of muleteers and the thunder, The winding passage of the procession through the dunes was marked with multiple pinpoints of light from “cigarritos”.

During the Mexican War, Colonel Alexander William Doniphan led a force of about 1000 American soldiers south from El Paso. They had engaged to guard a merchant caravan of about 315 heavy wagons going to Chihuahua City.

They elected to go through the Salamayuca Sands, rather than take the detour. After entering the dune fields, the mules pulling the heavy wagon train sank to their knees in the sand, and the wheels of the wagons were buried in the hubs.

With the merchant’s wagons bogged down, men and animals began to suffer serious debility from lack of water.

The column had to abandon thousands of pounds of supplies in order to free the wagons from the sands, and men and animals had to join together to push and pull the wagons forward out of the dune area.

Once past the dunes, Colonel Doniphan went on the south, and still accompanied by the wagon train he defeated a Mexican force at the Battle of the Sacramento River, thereafter capturing Chihuahua City.

Tourism interest in the dune fields near Samalayuca

The dramatic appearance of the dunes near Samalayuca, visible from Highway 45, has generated tourism interest in the dunes. This includes adventure tourism. Tourists hike in the dunes, ride over them in various vehicles, and slide down the dunes on sandboards.

On June 5, 2009, the Mexican federal government created a protected area of 63,182 hectares (631.82 km2) in Samalayuca dune fields.

Today, the original trail (except for the branch that skirted the Samalayuca sand dunes) from Chihuahua, Mexico to El Paso, Texas lies beneath or beside Mexico’s Federal Highway 45. Paralleling the highway is a railroad, now used only to haul freight.

A traveler on Highway 45 passes over the sandy areas without difficulty.

Chihuahua Trail

The Samalayuca Dune fields lie directly across the main route of the Chihuahua Trail, part of the longer route known as El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, or the royal road of the interior.

The portion of this route known as the Chihuahua Trail went north from Chihuahua City to Santa Fe, in New Mexico.

From the time the Spanish colonial city of Santa Fe was founded in 1598 by the Spanish explorer Juan de Oñate, there was steady and increasing freight and passenger traffic on this route.

The only major river on the trail was the Rio Grande. The trail crossed the river via a ford near the famous pass between the Juarez and Franklin mountain ranges.

This ford and pass came to be known simply as “the Pass” (El Paso) or “The Pass of the North” (El Paso del Norte), and a town by the same name was first established south of the river, at the site of present-day Ciudad Juarez.

A separate community also known as El Paso del Norte, was later established on the north side of the river in 1849 after the Mexican-U.S. War on United States Territory. The original Mexican community of El Paso del Norte south of the river changed its name to Ciudad Juarez in 1865.

However, in the segment of the Chihuahua trail from Chihuahua City and El Paso del Norte, where the trail reached a point some 45 miles south of the Pass of the North, the trail encountered a 15-mile stretch of the Samalayuca dune fields.

The wind shifted and renewed the deep and finely gained sand beds in these dunes.

The soft shifting sands made walking through the dune fields tiring and time-consuming for animals and people. Horses, oxen, mules, and people could cross this sandy area only with great difficulty.

The traditional two-wheeled carts (carreteras) could become bogged down in the sands.

Juan de Oñate and alternative routes

In 1598, Juan de Oñate, a wealthy Zacatecas nobleman, set out northward from the Valle de San Bartolomé, New Spain, to establish a new northern colony. He pioneered the Chihuahua Trail route.

When he reached Los Médanos (the dunes), he attempted to cross but found the difficulty so great that he detoured to the east to go around the area of sand dunes, before trending north again to the area where he found San Juan, the first capital of New Mexico.

Oñate’s detour set a precedent, and thereafter an alternative trail led around the sand dunes near Salamaluca. South of the dunes, the Chihuahua trail forked at Laguna de Patos (Duck Lake).

The detour branched off south of the dunes at Lagunas de Patos and veered northeast for roughly 60 miles, across the southeastern margin of the dune fields till it reached the south bank of the Rio Grande del Norte.

This branch then turned and followed the Rio Grande’s south bank upstream in a northwest direction about 60 miles to The Pass of the North (El Paso Del Norte), where the two branches of the trail were again joined.

After El Paso, the trail proceeded through the pass and on to Santa Fe.

At Laguna de Patos, the main branch of the Chihuahua Trail proceeded due north crossing the dune fields to reach El Paso del Norte in about 65 miles.

In this distance the trail crossed through the sandy dunes for a distance of 12 to 15 miles, emerging from the sand to cross about 30 miles of desert brushlands to finally reach El Paso del Norte.

The detour around the dune fields added some fifty or sixty miles to the direct route through the dune fields.

To a horseman traveling at 20 miles a day, this could mean a delay of three days. To a merchant caravan moving at twelve miles a day between Ciudad de Chihuahua and El Paso del North, this could mean a delay in transit of five or more days.

The sinkhole is part of a larger park called El Ocote Biosphere Reserve, located in the western part of the Mexican state of Chiapas, about 90 minutes from the state capital of Tuxtla Gutierrez.

It belongs to the municipality of Ocozocoautla de Espinoza, about 19 km over rough roads from the town center.

This part of Chiapas is dominated by the Zoque people, who call the area Coita, a Zoque word that means “place of rabbits”.

The nearest community to the sinkhole is Piedra Parada, which has about 500 residents.

The climate of the area is mostly warm and humid, with a rainy season from June to October, receiving an average of 1,500mm of precipitation per year. It is in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, at an altitude of about 820 meters above seal level. This area gets cold enough in the winter to need a light jacket.

Most of the vegetation of the area has been wiped out or severely degraded by agriculture, forestry and other human activity.

The Sima de las Cotorras belongs to a Karst topography system, based on the folding, fracturing and erosion of limestone. This particular system is defined its drainage system, with the La Venta River on the surface and the main underground river being El Paraíso. Despite its proximity to the Pacific, drainage is towards the Gulf of Mexico. Most of this ecological system is covered by the El Ocote Biosphere Reserve.

There are two main forces that shape the landcape. Tectonic forces from the movement of the North American plate over the Farallon and Cocos plates creates anticline folds, with a northeasterly orientation. The folding creates cracks in the relatively soft rock and water running above and below erode in and around these fractures. The two processes have created a number of formations including canyons, arches, caves, waterfalls, small pools of water and sinkholes. These same processes make the soil acidic and strewn with loose rock.

Major formations include the La Venta River Canyon, the Arch of Time (Arco del Tiempo) and El Aguacero Falls. The Sima de las Cotorras is only one of 38 sinkholes in the region and one of eight within 10km2. It is not even the largest of these, being only half the size of the Las Luchas sinkhole.

These sinkholes are vertical depressions formed by the cracking, erosion and collapse of limestone over thousands of years. The Sima de las Cotorras is 140 metres (460 ft) meters deep, and 160 metres (520 ft) in diameter, with a straight drop of 97 metres (318 ft) meters. The opening is elliptical, with the north and southwest rims elevated in relation to the rest. The low point of the rim is in the east. The process reveals the layers of rock, and about 70 metres (230 ft) meters down, stalactites and stalagmites can be seen among the layers from the surface. There are also caves within the sinkhole walls, which have also been produced by erosion. This type of sinkhole is similar to those found in the Yucatán, but general do not contain pooled water at the bottom.

Instead the interior of the sinkhole is home to a tropical forest, whose plant and animal life is distinct from that of the surrounding ecosystem.

El Ocote is home to a number of endangered species, especially birds such as the Aratinga holochlora, the Amazilia viridifons and the Oporornis tolmiei, as well as other receiving special protection such as the Eucometis penicillata, Lanio aurantius, Psarocolius montezuma and Colinus virginianus. Numbers and types of birds present depends on the time of year, due to migratory patterns.

The wider reserve serves as a buffer area for the microclimate of the Sima de las Cotorras. Outside the sinkhole and up to its rim, the climate is drier, mostly grassland/shrub from cattle grazing, and areas called lomería, rocky areas with limited growth, mostly shrubs, due to dense limestone. In some of the higher elevation there are still some forests. Around the sinkhole itself, there are many copal trees, Protium copal (Burseraceae), which gave the sinkhole its original name of Sima del Copal.

The interior of the sinkhole holds and preserves more moisture. From its bottom grows a tropical deciduous rainforest microsystem with broadleafed species such as cedar, mahogany, Fabaceas espinosa and Burseraceas baja, Manilkara zapota, scrubs of the Guaiacum family and more, with trees reaching as high as 30 meters tall. The plant species here are not found outside the sinkhole.

Common reserve fauna includes owls, foxes and coyotes, rabbits, opossums, badgers, squirrels, armadillos, Penelopina nigra, chachalaca and of course, parakeets. The park has over 80 bird species in 30 families. Eleven of these are migratory and three are endemic to the area. Seven bird species are classified as endangered by the Mexican government. Most of the bird species 35 of them, are found in the low deciduous rainforest of the sinkholes. These include species which are highly sensitive to human intrusion such as the Colinus virginianus, Caprimulgus vociferous, Amazilia candida and Ortalis vetula. A number of bird species have been found in the Sima de las Cotorras area but not in the larger El Ocote park, including Bubo virginianus, Amazilia viridifrons, Vireo philadelphicus, Sialia sialis, Passerina versicolor and Cacicus melanicterus.

The Sima’s most famous resident is the Aratinga holochola, the Mexican parrot, which is endangered. Chiapas is home to over 68% of Mexico’s parrots (Psittacidae). And many of Mexico’s parrot species are endangered, mostly due to shrinking habitat, along with the illegal pet trade and other exploitation of the animals.There are an estimated 3,000 parrots associated with the sinkhole and can be found there most of the year, with the exception November to January, when the weather is too cool for them. The forest of the sinkhole is also their nesting site. From the evening until the early morning, the parrots are congregated in the sinkhole forest, where the noise they make can be quite loud. The parrots’ noise will cease if a predator such as a falcon is seen nearby. The parrots leave the sinkhole to look for food, which include from mango trees in people’s backyards as far away as Tuxtla Gutierrez. They leave the sinkhole in groups, flying in circles on wind currents in order to leave and enter. Inside the sinkhole, the parrots are the most numerous kind of bird. Outside, it is dominated by small birds of the Tyrannidae family.

Evidence of human habitation in the area goes back at least 7,500 years, with evidence of hunter/gatherers. However, there were no major pre Hispanic settlements in this area.[6] The area of the park was first explored and academically documented in the mid 20th century, noting local caves and archeological finds such as pottery. But documentation still remains sparse especially in comparison to other such sites in Mexico.

The significant archeological find in and around the Sima de las Cotorras are cave paintings, arrowheads, and much later pottery shards, possibly Zoque. The most important of these are the cave paintings, which number about 75. On a rock outcropping on the north wall, there is a human figure with lance, and with a sun and moon above. One of the side caves has on its roof the outlines of hands made by blowing red ochre onto the wall. Other images include circles, spirals and animals. The appearance of cave painting in such a geological formation and especially so high up the sinkhole walls makes them a rarity, and the site is under consideration by UNESCO for protective status.

The El Ocote Biosphere Reserve was established in 1972, extendingover 8 hectares, protecting over a hundred species of birds, and dozens of mammals, reptiles and insects, some endangered. With the exception of the Sima de la Cotorras, the park has not been developed for tourism, and its formations are almost completely unknkown outside of their region. The other sinkholes in the area get no tourism activity at all. The tourism activity based on the flight of the parrots has made the sinkhole relatively famous and it is now better known as the “sinkhole of the parrots” rather than its official name.

Tourism activity here began with the establishment of the Sima de Cotorras Ecotourism Center in 1985 and the building of a road from the town of Ocozocoautla to the site. The center was established to provide alternative work for the local Zoque people. Today it is run by the Tzamanguimó cooperative, which consists of a number of familyes all from the nearby community of Piedra Parada.

The project is also registered with the federal government as an ecotourism site, with the aim of being sustainable, providing income for local residents with minimal impact. The group welcomes researchers as well as visitors onto the site. The main challenge has been how to take advantage of the site without damaging it. The ground is unstable and highly porous. Many underground cavities are still unknown, making building risky. The largest structure on the premises is the restaurant. Built near the rim, its site was chosen because of the stability of the rock, not because it was the most aesthetically pleasing place to put the structure. Waste disposal is a main issue because of the threat of groundwater contamination, prompting several composting activities. Bringing water, electricity and more are also challenges.

By far the main attraction of the site are the parrots that fly in and out of sinkhole each day, generally leaving in the early morning and returning at night. It is also possible to rappel to the bottom of the sinkhole, as well as explore local caves and hike both in and around the sinkhole.

Where possible constructions are based on local materials to allow them to blend into the local environment. Paving and path construction is based on local rock. Pre Hispanic architecture formed the basis of the buildings on the site, including the rock foundation seen on the restaurant building. The Center has eight cabins for up to five persons each, a camping area and tours with local guides.

It has eight cabins which can house five people each. It current has a restaurant, several cabins to house multiple people, a camping área, a path around the rim of the sinkhole, rapelling and tours to see the cave paintings and the rainforest that covers the sinkhole’s floor.

The Center has provided an alternative source of work other than agriculture and for some, a means for income when before they had none. Despite this, the project has not been claimed as a great success. According to theses done at the Universidad Intercultural de Chiapas, the tourism possibilities here have not been fully exploited. As of 2016, only about 10 to 15 people per day visit the site. Most visitors come by their own cars or through local ecoaventure tourism agencies. Most tourists are between 41-60 years of age, followed by the 31-40 age bracket and those in the 18-30 year bracket. About half come from the state capital of Tuxtla Gutierrez, with about 13% from Mexico City, 12.5 from other parts of Mexico. Only about 2 percent are foreigners.

The main problems for the site are the lack of promotion and poor access. The roads leading to the site are very poor, especially the last ten km, and signage is poor or non-existent. The park is difficult to access for those with disabilities. Most visitors learn of the site through word-of-mouth, with some from television and much fewer from other media. The lack of services means that those who do come do not stay for long. Two thirds come only to see the parrots, some will stay and eat at the restaurant, but very few stay the night.

The project over the years has received intermittent support from various government institutuions such as PEMEX, the Secretary of Tourism, SEMARNAT and the Comision Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, in areas such as finance, customer service and construction. But these interventions have not always been helpful, with functionaries using technical jargon and dismissing local knowledge of the area. Changes in political parties has led to varying attitudes towards the project and its ecological focus, with errors being made such as cutting down trees to make way for cement electrical poles and the construction on non-composting toilets.

At its height, the Center generated about 80 to 100 jobs directly, but since the tourist demand has declined. The project is specifically geared to keep young people in the area, but they have not shown sufficient interest in its continuation. Most members of the cooperative are between 50 and 80 years of age. Only about 30% of the local population recognizes the area’s intangible value, but 80% favor efforts to make the area better known.[6] Even with sufficient interest and promotion, the area is not suited for large-scale tourism. One reason is the need to keep ecological concerns first and the other is that alternative and eco-tourism are not major attractions for most Mexicans.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The Sumidero Canyon was formed by cracks in the earth’s crust along with erosion by the Grijalva River. The process of its formation began about 35 million years ago, making the Sumidero contemporary with the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River.

The Grijalva is the main water system in the area, beginning in the Cuchumatanes in neighboring Guatemala. The river then flows through Chiapas, including the 13-km length of the canyon, from south to north, then on to Tabasco before it empties into the Usumacinta River.

This river basin is one of the two most important in Chiapas, and one of the most important in Mexico with a total river length of approximately 766 km, draining an area of 7,940 sq km, with an average flow of about forty million cubic meters.

In addition to the Grijalva, there are other flows of water in the area in and around the canyon, many of which are seasonal. These consist of streams, some of which form waterfalls on the canyon’s sides, and underground movements that have created caves and karst formations. The last important water formation in the area is the manmade reservoir of the Chicoasén Dam.

The canyon proper is deep and narrow, characterized by vertical walls. As the gap changes direction as much as 90 degrees in places, it separates the Meseta de las Animas mesa in the west from the Meseta de Ixtapa mesa in the east.

The width of the canyon varies from 1 to 2 km.

Most of the canyon’s walls are between 200 and 700 m high, reaching 1,000 m at their highest point. These walls expose a long process of disturbance in the Earth’s crust with layers of limestone from the Upper Mesozoic, which contain fossils of marine creatures.

During the Mesocretac Period, there was an elevation of the ocean floor which formed much of the mountains of the area.

Despite its biological, ecological, and cultural diversity, there have been few studies performed in the parking area. For this reason, there is a lack of information about species, habitats, and water flow. There is also relatively little information about how human activities affect the park.

As the park is located in the Central Valley of Chiapas and borders the Northern Mountains region, altitudes vary from approximately 600 meters above sea level in the municipality of Chiapa de Corzo to 1,200 meters above sea level at the El Roblar lookout point.

This geography produces a channel for airflow from northwest to southeast as well as three main climates based on the Köeppen system as modified for Mexico. These are hot and dry (where airflow is blocked), semi-hot and humid, and hot and humid.

The average rainfall for the park is about 1,000 mm during the rainy season from May to October and 200 mm during the dry season from November to April. The average annual temperature is 26 °C. The rugged terrain also forms a number of microclimates.

Most of the park’s vegetation, especially around the canyon, is dense tropical rainforest.

Most species found in the park are members of the Fabaceae family with 59 species and the Asteraceae family with 25 species, which reflects the abundance of these families statewide.

Other important families include the Orchidaceae and Euphorbiaceae, each with 22 species, the Convolvulaceae family with 17 species, and the Cactaceae with 11 species. 122 species are considered valuable as ornamental plants with 46 having medicinal uses and 31 species valuable for logging. These mostly come from rainforest areas.

The rainforest vegetation is mostly deciduous, shedding leaves in the dry season. However, there are perennial rainforests, forests of pine and oak, grasslands (mostly induced), and areas with secondary vegetation.

The three main vegetation classifications are low-height rainforest, medium-height rainforest (as per the size of the trees), pine-oak forest, and meadows.

Medium-height deciduous rainforest is mostly located on either side of the canyon, in the north and east of the part towards San Fernando and in the Cañada Muñiz at altitudes of between 150 and 1250 masl. It is mostly found in areas with basalt or granite rock and where there are lime deposits, covering an area of 11,382 hectares (28,130 acres) in total.

While many plants here lose leaves in the dry season, there are some that retain them year-round. Maximum height of trees varies between 25 and 30 meters.

The density of the tree cover in these areas is enough to lower temperatures on the ground in the summer rainy season due to the maximum foliage which occurs at this time.

The tree cover is composed of the following species: breadnut, guanacaste, totoposte, jocotillo, cedar , cuaulote blanco, hormiguillo, chicozapote, tempisque and various types of amate fig trees.

Under the tree cover, there is significant plant diversity, including palms and areas. Epiphytes (air plants) are abundant as well, along with orchids, Bromeliaceae, and cacti. Cactus are primarily found on the vertical walls of the canyon and belong to the Acanthocereus family.

In the 1970s, tree areas in a good state of conservation amounted to 3,818 hectares or 17.72% of the total land area.

From 1988 to 1993, this amount was reduced to 1,107 hectares or 5.35%. From 1990 to 2000, it is estimated that eight percent of the remaining forests and 38% of the rainforests were damaged.

Many of the areas in good condition are broken up by disturbed areas. Most of the damage is due to illegal logging and the clearing of land for pasture or agriculture.

Medium-height perennial rainforest (also known as evergreen cloud forest) exists only in small dispersed patches, mostly on the sides of the canyon in contact with the Grijalva River.

Many of these patches are less than one hectare in size, as they are located on small areas of flat land at altitudes between 1000 and 2,500 masl. The soils are rich in undecomposed plant matter which holds moisture.

The low-height deciduous rainforest is mostly found around the La Ceiba and La Coyota lookout points in the south and southeast sections of the park, with some in the east towards the La Chacona Cañada.

These occupy a territory of 4,404 hectares in the park. Tree heights extend from four to ten meters with some as high as 15 meters.

Non-tree species are not as common and mostly consist of succulent species such as Agave, Opuntia, Stenocereus, and Cephalocereus. Other important species include Alvaradoa amorphous, Bursera simaruba, Ceiba acuminate, Bursera bipinnate, Bursera excels, Cochlospermum vitifolium, Haematoxylon brasiletto, Piscidia piscipula, Swietenia humilis, Acacia collinsii, and Pseudobombax ellipticum.

Pine-oak forests exist in the northwest of the park in the highest altitudes, covering about 87 hectares. They are part of the same type of forest found in the Soyaló region it is adjacent to.

They are found at an altitude of 1,200 masl and above in areas that receive precipitation of about 1500 mm annually.

The most common species is the oak Quercus conspersa, often found mixed with the two kinds of rainforest found in the park. Air plants are common here as well as bromeliads, orchids and plants from the Maxillaria, Lycaste, Cattleya and Laelia groups.

Grassland is not naturally occurring but rather exists due to human activities such as farming and livestock raising. It is seen on the north and south sides of the canyon and is usually associated with secondary vegetation such as Tecoma stans, Gliricidia sepium, Plumeria rubra, and Acacia collinsii, occupying an area of 6,539 hectares in the park.

Throughout the history of the area, especially since it was definitively explored in the 1960s, the area’s wildlife diversity has been severely negatively impacted by human encroachment in the form of settlements, agriculture, and hunting.

However, since the federal park was established in the 1980s, wildlife diversity has increased.

In 1986, the federal Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos Hidráulicos (SARH) reported a total of ninety species of vertebrates divided into four species of fish, one amphibian, 14 reptiles, 26 birds, and 40 mammals.

A 2005 study indicates 308 species with four species of fish, 15 amphibians, 195 birds, and 53 mammals. Between these two, there have been a number of other studies which also show the growth of the number of wildlife species in the park.

Information about fish species is scarce but at least four protected species have been detected.

According to a CONANP study in 2007, there are 12 species of reptile here under protection, including the river crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), and one threatened species, the Yucatán banded gecko (Coleonyx elegans).

Birds are the most common type of animal in the park, with about 195 species documented. Six of these species are threatened and 17 are subject to special protection. One threatened bird species in the park is the great curassow (Crax rubra).

Relatively abundant species include Actitus macularia, Dendrocygna autumnalis, Egretta caerulea, Egretta thula, Tachybaptus dominicus and Coragyps atratus, all of which are associated with bodies of water.

There have been 53 species of mammals detected recently in the park, of which two are considered threatened, two are in danger, and two subjects to special protection.

Endangered and threatened species include the spider monkey, jaguarundi, ocelot, lowland paca, white-tailed deer, anteater, and buzzard (Sarcoramphus papa). The most abundant species include the bat Artibeus Jamaicensis and the rat Peromyscus Mexicanus.

The history of the area is connected to the Chiapa people, who occupied the Central Valley area before the arrival of the Spanish.

The origin of these people is not known, but theories have them migrating north from Nicaragua or even Paraguay.

Their main settlement was in Chiapa de Corzo near the canyon, with a fortified area in the higher areas of the canyon for protection from invasions.

The Chiapa fiercely resisted Spanish conquest and were not subdued until the arrival of Diego de Mazariegos in 1528.

Their last refuge was in the fortified area, now known as the archeological site of the Ruins of Berlin. Here the last of the Chiapa held out from 1528 to 1535 after the Spanish took over the main city.

Legend states that when this last fortification fell, the remaining Chiapa committed collective suicide by jumping into the canyon. Since then, the canyon has served as a boundary marker between the Zoque and Tzotzil peoples.

Until the 20th century, the canyon area was relatively unexplored.

In 1895, three Frenchmen attempted to explore the canyon but were drowned in the river.

An American came in 1932 but also perished.

This gave rise to legends about witchcraft in the area as well as the ferocity of the area’s crocodiles.

In 1960, an expedition of soldiers from the Mexican army nicknamed the “red handkerchiefs” succeeded in crossing through the canyon by boat over twenty km. This opened up the canyon to local exploration and exploitation, including rudimentary tourism and the hunting of crocodiles and other native fauna.

There has been little archaeological work done in the area. The main site is called the Ruins of Berlin, named after German explorer Heinrich Berlin, who visited the area in 1946 and named the area “Sumidero”.

This site is located seven km from the Belisario Domínguez Bridge in Tuxtla on the edge of the river. It covers an area of 467 by 60 meters, bounded by small mounds surrounding patios.

The original description of the site was undertaken in 1923 and 1932 by Becerra, who called it Chiapa Viejo, and stated it was the capital of the Chiapa people. However, Remesal in 1966 determined it was a secondary site.

The last major survey was done in 1976 by Alejandro Martínez, discovering that there are 24 individual sites of which nine are mounds and fifteen are caves. One of these contains cave paintings which indicate that the area has been occupied since at least the very early Pre Classic period.

The interior of the canyon has thirty rapids, five waterfalls, three beaches, two freshwater springs, and a cofferdam three meters wide.

The canyon contains endangered and threatened species such as the Central American river turtle and the American crocodile, which can be seen on the riverbanks.

The walls of the canyon contain numerous small caves, rock formations, and other notable features.

The best-known of the area’s caves is the Cueva de Colores (“Cave of Colors”). This cave gets its name from the filtration of magnesium, potassium, and other minerals which form colors on the walls, especially shades of pink. It contains an image of the Virgin of Guadalupe inside usually surrounded by fresh flowers and burning candles left by visitors.

The Cueva de Silencio (“Cave of Silence”) is so named because of a lack of echo or any other kind of resonance in its interior.

In another small cave, there is a stalactite called the Caballito de Mar or “Seahorse” after its shape.

Of the various seasonal waterfalls, the best known is the Árbol de Navidad (“Christmas Tree”). The “branches” of the Árbol are made by deposits from the waterfall which have been covered in moss. During the rainy season, when the waterfall is active, the water and the light change the colors of the “branches” and make the formation stand out.

The park was a candidate in 2009 as one of the Seven New Natural Wonders of the World.

Establishment of the park

The Sumidero Canyon National Park has its origins in a Chiapas state decree issued in 1972, which made the area around the canyon an ecological reserve to preserve its geology, history, and wildlife and to allow for scientific study. For similar reasons, the park was taken over and enlarged to 21,789 hectares by the federal government in 1980. Most private landholders in the area were compensated for their lands, but not all resident persons or businesses were evicted. Since that time, the park has been under the administration of various agencies such as SAHOP, SEDUE, and SEMARNAP, with the current managers being the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas and the Secretaría de Educación Pública. In 2004, the park came under the protection of the Ramsar Convention due to the importance of its ecology and water systems. It was also named a Región Prioritaria Terrestre and an Área de Importancia para la Conservación de las Aves by the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) in 2000. In 2005 and 2006, this agency enlarged the park again with the expropriation of lands in the municipalities of San Fernando and Tuxtla Gutiérrez, adding a total of 1,660 hectares (4,100 acres). It remains, however, smaller than most other national parks in Mexico.

The center of the park is the Sumidero Canyon and the Grijalva River that runs from south to north through it. The park’s borders on this river are marked by the Belisario Domínguez Bridge, over which the Pan-American Highway runs, in the south and the Chicoasén Dam, 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the north. The rest of the park’s borders extend into the municipalities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Osumacinta and San Fernando. This territory is mostly located in the Central Valley region of the state. The park is open 365 days a year. The park is divided into four sections by direction: the northwest includes medium-height, somewhat deciduous rainforest as well as some lowland rainforest and grassland, found in the municipalities of Osumacinta and San Fernando; the western section has similar vegetation, and is located entirely in San Fernando; the eastern section has forests of pine as well as medium-height semi-deciduous rainforest and grasslands, and is found in Chiapa de Corzo; and the southeast has most of the sides of the canyon itself and a navigable section of the Grijalva River, but only remnants of medium-height rainforest and pachycaulous vegetation. The main land access into the park is from Tuxtla Gutiérrez north through Osumacinta then past the Chicoasén Dam. Another access point is from Chiapa de Corzo by boat from the Cahuaré Docks. As the main attraction of the park is the canyon, several lookout points have been constructed on various parts of the rim. La Ceiba is closest to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, only 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) away. The Los Chiapas point is near where the canyon’s walls rise highest from the river below, where according to legend, a number of Chiapa people preferred to commit suicide by jumping rather than submit to Spanish domination. This lookout also has a restaurant.

Conservation issues

The most important conservation issue in the park is the contamination of the Grijalva River, which passes through the Sumidero Canyon proper. However, other threats to the park include human encroachment and other human activities. An estimated 1500 to 2000 hectares, or about six percent of the park total, have been encroached upon, mostly by illegal human settlements next to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez since the park was established. It is estimated that about 15,000 people live within the park’s borders. Most of these illegal constructions belong to the very poor who have migrated to the city from elsewhere. The demand for living space has created an industry of illegal subdivisions which are then sold without the proper title to victims. Three of the main neighborhoods to develop in this way are the Patria Nueva Alta, Arroyo Blanco, La Esperanza and Las Granjas. The encroachment is a result of the fast population growth of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and Chiapa de Corzo. The growth of these areas has led to land ownership disputes, loss of wild habitat and deforestation. In 2002, the federal and state government signed an accord to remove illegal human settlements and work to prevent further encroachment. Operations to evict illegal settlers have been carried out such as a 2005 operation which evicted about one hundred people and others that have prevented new settlements from getting established. However, the encroachment of human settlements into the park from the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez has been so damaging that a 2007 report states that there is no other alternative than to deregulate this section of the park and work to prevent further incursion. However, the situation has not been helped by the fact that there are disputes over the boundaries of the park as decreed in 1980. Since 2009, there have been further efforts by park management to stop the advancement of these illegal settlements as well. Despite this, a number of areas in the park are well-conserved, mostly due to the very rugged terrain.

In addition to the illegal settlements, there are legal settlements and operations which affect the park. There are eight ejidos which border the parks and whose activities directly affect it: San Antonio Zaragoza, Venustiano Carranza, Francisco Sarabia, Gabriel Esquinca, Benito Juárez, Osumacinta, El Palmar, 16 de Septiembre and Nuevo Bochil. Established before the park, there are still five ejidos and three human settlements established within, Libertad Campesina (population 495), Nueva Esperanza (139), La Unión (329), El Paraíso (134), Tierra Colorada (199), La Candelaria / Triunfo Agrarista (631). As of 2005, the total population within the park’s borders was 1927. Because of human activity, this park is one of the most susceptible to wildfires, and the most damaged by such in Mexico from 2009 to 2011. Many of these were started by human activity in or near the park such as one fire set on a nearby farm in May 2011.

In addition to this, there are lime and other extraction operations within the park’s borders. They exist legally because they had been there well before the park was established. However, these operations have destroyed about 2,600 hectares. These operations produce noise, smoke, dust and small tremblers from explosions used to extract the minerals. Much of the environment damage come from runoff from mining waste which winds up in the Grijalva River. However the dust and smoke have produced a distinct white coating on surrounding flora.

Via the Grijalva River, the wastewater of about 552,000 people in seventeen municipalities finds its way through the canyon according to park director Edda González del Castilla, with most coming from Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Berriozábal and Chicoasén . Much of the sewage comes into the Grijalva via the Sabinal River, which carries most of the waste water of the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In addition, trash and raw sewage makes its way into the river from the various tributary streams. Agricultural waste comes from the farms that line the river and its tributaries.

The most obvious pollution is garbage, especially plastic containers, which mostly comes from area homes and businesses tossed onto the ground or in streams, especially from Chiapa de Corzo and Tuxtla Gutiérrez due to the lack of environmental awareness according to Conanp. The quantity of this trash reaches its height during the rainy season, when runoff and swollen streams can carry more of it into the Grijalva. While bottles and other plastic are what the casual visitor generally notices, other indicators include the overgrowth of water lilies (due to high levels of fecal matter) and dead animals. However, this accounts for only about five percent of the total tonnage of waste that comes into the river each year. Somewhere between 80 and 90% of the waste solids found in the river is branches, wood, rocks, sediment and other debris from legal and illegal logging, which cause deforestation . These mostly come into the river during the rainy season, especially from the Villa Flores and Villa Corzo municipalities. Only a small part of the solid waste is visible on the surface of the water, most is hidden underneath.

As the solids flow along the Grijalva, they are constricted by the narrow channel of the canyon and then by the presence of the Chicoasén Dam. This is particularly true at a point called “El Tapón” (The Plug), where two currents of water meet just before the reservoir back up of water from the Dam.

It is estimated that about 5000 tons of trash accumulate each year, and the river is considered to be one of the five most polluted in Mexico. 3700 tons of solids were extracted from the canyon area in 2010 alone. Many fish have died off or have developed abnormally due to contamination by fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals. This threatens the native American crocodiles as the agrochemicals kill off and poison the fish they need to eat. In May 2011, the Fédération Internationale de Natation decided cancel its annual swim marathon in the canyon as they claimed that pollution levels in the river posed a risk to swimmers’ health. The Comisión Nacional del Agua and the government of Chiapas disputed this, presenting their own test results stating that levels were below such levels.

There are year-round and seasonal efforts to clean the river within the canyon and the area just upstream from it. Much of the daily effort is undertaken by workers with the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP) and the Secretariat of Tourism in Chiapas, which extract twelve tons of garbage from the Grijalva river each day. Most of the season cleanup coincides with the rainy season, especially in September and October, when rains are heaviest. This seasonal effort has included local police, civil protections agencies, social organization, the army and individual volunteers. Efforts can involve up to 600 people at a time using 32 boats from four of the tourist cooperatives. During the annual campaign to clean the canyon in 2005 more than 60,000 tons of trash was removed. Generally, about forty tons of garbage is collected each day during these campaigns.

While the cleanup efforts have improved the situation in the canyon, the garbage reaccumulates especially during the rainy season. Part of the price that tourists pay for boat rides into the canyon pays for cleanup efforts, but the boat operators state that the canyon remains filled with trash. Conanp also states that cleanup efforts are insufficient. Mexico’s federal environmental agency, the Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Semarnat) states that it cannot get involved in the situation as it is the municipalities that have the responsibility for disposing of trash appropriately. However, many of these local governments do not have landfills or the separation of recyclables.

The scenery of the canyon has become a major tourist attraction for the state, with developments for eco tourism and extreme sports. The navigable part of the Grijalva River is mostly used to ferry visitors into the canyon area. The park has six lookout points accessible by land called La Ceiba, La Coyota, El Roblar, Tepehuaje, Los Chiapas and Manos. In the rainy season, tourism is enhanced by the activity of waterfalls such as the Árbol de Navidad, Cueva del Hombre, Cueva del Silencio, Cueva de Colón, Cueva de Colores and Cueva del Suspiro. A lesser known attraction is the archeological site called the Ruins of Berlin. The most important economic activity in the canyon is ecotourism. Most of the visitors are Mexicans. Weekends are busiest with local and regional visitors to bike, swim, hike, camp and picnic.

The canyon is the second most visited site in Chiapas, after Palenque. The park is visited annually by 300,000 people, about 80% of whom are from Mexico and the rest from abroad. During vacation times, the park may be visited by anywhere from 1,000 to 7,000 people per day, who either enter by car to go to the lookout points or by boat from Chiapa de Corzo. Entrance and boating fees can generate about 70,000 pesos per day for clean-up efforts. The number of visitors to the park hit a peak in 2003 with about 196,500.

Commercial activity in the park is limited to those which serve tourists, sales of food and Mexican handcrafts and folk art. Tour operators are organized into cooperatives, with food and craft vendors working independently. These merchants must receive an annual permit in order to operate within the park’s borders. The most important of these businesses are the boats which ferry people through the canyon along the Grijalva River. Most of these boat tours operate out of Chiapa de Corzo and run along the river to the Chicoasén Dam for a distance of about 30 kilometres (19 mi). Chiapa de Corzo has two main docks for this activity. The largest and oldest is called Cahuare, with paved areas and a restaurant; the second smaller one also has restaurants and a swimming area as well. These two docks host six tour cooperatives, with about 120 boats that can hold between ten and forty passengers each. As they take visitors from Chiapa de Corzo or Tuxtla Gutiérrez through the canyon and to the dam, they provide environmental, historical and cultural information. These are the most organized tourist activities in the park.

A spate of accidents involving these boats occurred from late 2009 to early 2010, claiming the lives of six tourists and hurt sixty two others. The accidents occurred on decrepit boats, many of which were operating without permission with underage or unlicensed crew members. There were no ambulance boats and no first aid services on shore. Two of the cooperatives, Ángel Albino Corzo and Nandiume were suspended and fined for the accidents, taking about sixty boats out of operation. These boating accidents caused significant problems for the tourism industry.

For those who choose to see the canyon from the lookout points above, there are restaurants and other food service places as well as camping and picnicking facilities.

The other two attractions of the park are general ecotourism and extreme sports. The park has hiking paths and sports fishing is allowed sporadically by permit. There are some locations that rent kayaks and other boats. The Amikúu Ecological Park is located within the canyon area, which is accessible by boat from Chiapa de Corzo. The park is divided into three parts; Discover the Canyon, Colors of Chiapas, and Area of Adventure. The first is located in the dock area, with a demonstration of the history of the canyon and a video of its geological formation. There is also a souvenir shop here. The interior of the park contains a 300 meter long zip line. Colors of Chiapas is a small museum which exhibits the traditional dress and native musical instruments of the state’s indigenous peoples. The Area of Adventure takes visitors on a tour of the rainforest area, which includes a suspension bridge. It also has a herpetarium, an aviary and enclosure for jaguars and one for crocodiles. The park was opened in 2009 at an initial cost of 120 million pesos.

Extreme sports include mountain biking, rappelling, spelunking and more. Rappelling allows for access to many of the canyon’s small caves which are not accessible any other way. The dam area has recreational fishing with an annual tournament. One major annual event is the Copa Mundo Fino swimming marathon. An Australian base jumper plunged to his death in 2006 after jumping off an 800-meter cliff in the canyon. The accident occurred during a sanctioned event sponsored by an energy drink maker with jumpers from Australia, the U.S., Europe and Mexico.

At the northern end of the Sumidero Canyon is the Chicoasén Dam, formally called the Manuel M. Torres Dam, which is one of the number of dams that have been built along the Grijalva River for water storage and the generation of hydroelectric power. This dam and its reservoir is considered to be part of the Sumidero Canyon system. The Sumidero Canyon National Park is defined on the north end of the river by this dam and the Belisario Domínguez Bridge on the south. The dam was constructed between 1974 and 1980. The reservoir covers an average of 2,193 hectares, and the complex employs about 600 workers.

The Chicoasén Dam produces electricity and manages the flow of the Grijalva river along with the Hondo River and the Muñiz, El Jardín and El Cacao streams, which converge to form the Usumacinta River. This reservoir is one of the most important in the country. The hydroelectric station is also one of the most important in the country with thirty generators with the potential to generate 3,928.48 megawatts, with an average of 5,749.99 gigawatts per hour. This is just over thirty percent of all hydroelectric energy produced in Mexico.

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

SNational Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

You can dial 078 from any phone, where you can find free information about tourist attractions, airports, travel agencies, car rental companies, embassies and consulates, fairs and exhibitions, hotels, hospitals, financial services, migratory and other issues.

Or dial the toll-free (in Mexico) number 01-800-006-8839.

You can also request information to the email correspondencia@sectur.gob.mx

MORE EMERGENCY NUMBERS:

General Information: 040 (not free)

National Emergency Service: 911

Radio Patrols: 066
Police (Emergency): 060
Civil Protection: +52(55)5683-2222
Anonymous Complaint: 089

Setravi (Transport Mobility): +52(55)5209-9913
Road Emergency: 074

Cruz Roja: 065 o +52(55)5557-5757
Firefighters: 068 o +52(55)5768-3700

The river and its tributaries were important trade routes for the ancient Maya civilization. Yaxchilan and Piedras Negras, two of the most powerful cities of the Maya Classic Period, lie along its banks.

Before roads, such as the Border Highway constructed by the Mexican Government in the early 1990s, penetrated the jungle, the river was the only means of travel in this region. Huge trunks of hardwood trees were floated downriver to the state of Tabasco.

In the 1980s, many Guatemalan refugees fled across the river to relative safety in Mexico.

Other groups of refugees and Guatemalan guerrillas formed the so-called CPR communities in the jungle on the Guatemalan shores, hiding from the government until the peace accords of the nineties.

Frans and Trudi Blom first brought the idea of conservation to the watershed in the 1950s by proposing that a section of the Selva Lacandona be reserved for the Lacandon Maya.

Their idea was as much the preservation of culture as of habitat, and this principle – that indigenous integrity and habitat are inextricably linked in the watershed – should help guide any future conservation planning.

Conservationists working in the region, such as Nacho March, Ron Nigh, Fernando Ochoa, Roan Balas McNab, and others, have all acknowledged and upheld the principle in their work.

The first large hydroelectric project on the Usumacinta in “Boca del Cerro”, Tenosique, Tabasco, was proposed in the 1980s and would have stretched all the way up the Pasion and Lacantun tributaries, flooding Piedras Negras and Yaxchilan, among other known and unknown Maya sites. At that time, the Guatemalan shore was held by rebels, whose presence discouraged illegal logging, poaching, and looting. It also discouraged dam engineers.

In 1985 Jefferey Wilkerson’s groundbreaking article in National Geographic brought the river and its glories to widespread public consciousness for the first time.

Additionally, the Guatemalan journalist Victor Perera wrote about the river in The Nation and in his books, The Last Lords of Palenque and Unfinished Conquest, and Jan de Vos chronicled the region in his magisterial series of histories.

Ultimately the hydro project failed under the weight of its own disincentives: siltation, geology, seismic activity, distance from markets, politics, etc., but the outcry from conservationists, archeologists, writers, and the public helped. It also established a pattern.

A thriving seasonal business in wilderness tourism began after the Wilkerson article. The river and its environs became a favorite destination of river travelers, amateur Mayanists and archaeologists, birders and wildlife tourists.

Carlos Salinas de Gortari proposed a smaller but still monumental hydro project in 1990, and completed the periferico surrounding the Montes Azules reserve. Articles in The New York Times and op-ed pieces by Homero Aridjis suggesting a binational reserve for the area, helped defeat this incarnation of the idea.

In the late 1990s, a consortium of scientists, and government and non-governmental organizations met in San Cristóbal de las Casas, to identify the extent and types of habitat remaining in the region, and to draw maps of the watershed.

The conference addressed many of the jurisdictional and administrative questions that still bedevil the idea.

The Zapatista Rebellion in 1994 and 1995, and the Guatemalan peace accords in 1996, reshaped the political lines in the watershed. As a direct consequence, and with the dramatic fall of the peso, bandits began robbing raft trips, ending wilderness travel in the corridor.

One of the most promising tourist activities, with the least potential impact and the most possibility for helping conservation, archaeology, and cultural preservation, ended. Illegal activity of all types took over the corridor.

The Mexican army, which pervaded the Zapatista region, had little effect on river crime, and may have abetted it.

In Guatemala, the absence of the expelled CPR communities, which had helped keep the selva safe and secure, now left it open to invasion, illegal logging, smuggling of immigrants, arms, artifacts, and drugs.

Many members of those communities now work as Defensores, but their numbers are few, and they are poorly paid. The region continued in a state of low-grade terror and occupation for ten years.

Parícutin is located in the Mexican municipality of Nuevo Parangaricutiro.

It lies on the northern flank of the Cerros de Tancítaro, which itself lies on top of an old shield volcano and extends 3,170 m above sea level and 424 m above the Valley of Quitzocho-Cuiyusuru, wedged against old volcanic mountain chains.

It is surrounded by small volcanic cones with the intervening valleys occupied by small fields and orchards or small settlements, from groups of a few houses to those the size of towns.

The volcano lies on and is a product of, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which runs 900 km west-to-east across central Mexico. It includes the Sierra Nevada mountain range (a set of extinct volcanoes) as well as thousands of cinder cones and volcanic events.

Volcanic activity here has created the Central Mexican Plateau and rock deposits up to 1.8 km deep. It has also created fertile soils by the widespread deposition of ash and thereby some of Mexico’s most productive farmland.

The volcanic activity here is a result of the subduction of the Rivera and Cocos plates along the Middle America Trench.

More specifically, the volcano is the youngest of the approximately 1,400 volcanic vents of the Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic field, a 40,000 square km basalt plateau filled with scoria cones like Parícutin, along with small shield volcanoes, maars, tuff rings, and lava domes.

Scoria cones are the most common type of volcano in Mexico, appearing suddenly and building a cone-shaped mountain with steep slopes before going extinct. Parícutin’s immediate predecessor was El Jorullo, also in Michoacán, which erupted in 1759.

Currently, the volcano’s crater is about 200 meters across and it is possible to climb the volcano and walk around the entire perimeter. Parícutin is still hot, and seeping rainwater reacts with this heat so that the cone still emits steam in various streams.

The forces that created the volcano are still active.

In 1997 there was a vigorous swarm of 230 earthquakes in the Parícutin area due to tectonic movement, with five above 3.9 on the moment magnitude scale. There were also some reports of rumbling in 1995 and of black steam and rumbling in 1998.

In the summer of 2006, there was another major volcanic earthquake swarm, with over 300 located near the volcano, indicating magma movement, but with no eruption at Parícutin or anywhere else.

Parícutin erupted from 1943 to 1952, unusually long for this type of volcano, and with several eruptive phases.

For weeks prior, residents of the area reported hearing noises similar to thunder but without clouds in the sky. This sound is consistent with deep earthquakes from the movement of magma.

A later study indicated that the eruption was preceded by 21 earthquakes over 3.2 in intensity starting five weeks before the eruption. One week prior to the eruption, newspapers reported 25–30 per day. The day before the eruption, the number is estimated at 300.

The eruption began on February 20, 1943, at about 16:00 local time. The center of the activity was a cornfield near the town of Parícutin, owned by Dionisio Pulido.

During that day, he and his family had been working their land, clearing it to prepare for spring planting. Suddenly the ground nearby where they were working swelled upward and formed a fissure between 2 and 2.5 meters across.

They reported that they heard hissing sounds, and smoke which smelled like rotten eggs, indicating the presence of hydrogen sulfide. Within hours, the fissure would develop into a small crater.

Dionisio Pulido reported:

At 16:00, I left my wife to set fire to a pile of branches when I noticed that a crack, which was situated on one of the knolls of my farm, had opened .. and I saw that it was a kind of fissure that had a depth of only half a meter. I set about to ignite the branches again when I felt a thunder, the trees trembled, and I turned to speak to Paula; and it was then I saw how, in the hole, the ground swelled and raised itself 2 or 2.5 meters high, and a kind of smoke or fine dust – grey, like ashes – began to rise in a portion of the crack that I had not previously seen.. Immediately more smoke began to rise with a hiss or whistle, loud and continuous; and there was a smell of sulfur.

He tried to find his family and oxen but they had disappeared so he rode his horse to town where he found his family and friends, happy to see him alive. The volcano grew fast and furiously after this. Witness Celedonio Gutierrez, who witnessed the eruption on the first night reported:

.. when night began to fall, we heard noises like the surge of the sea, and red flames of fire rose into the darkened sky, some rising 800 meters or more into the air, that burst like golden marigolds, and rain like artificial fire fell to the ground.

On that first day, the volcano had begun strombolian pyroclastic activity and within 24 hours, there was a scorian cone fifty meters high, created by the ejection of lapilli fragments up to the size of a walnut and larger, semi-molten volcanic bombs.

By the end of the week, reports had the cone between 100 and 150 meters high. Soon after the start, the valley was covered in smoke and ash. The nine-year activity of the volcano is divided into four stages with names that come from the Purépecha language.

The first phase (Quitzocho) extended from February 22 to October 18, 1943, with activity concentrated in the cracks that formed in the Cuiyusuro Valley, forming the initial cone. During this time, the ejected material was mostly lapilli and bombs.

In March, the eruption became more powerful, with eruptive columns that extended for several kilometers.

In four months, the cone reached 200 meters, and in eight months 365 meters. During this period, there was some lava flow.
On June 12, lava began to advance toward the village of Parícutin, forcing evacuations the next day.

The second phase went from October 18, 1943, to January 8, 1944, and is called Sapichi, meaning “child”, referring to the formation of a lateral vent and other openings on the north side of the cone.

Ash and bombs continued to be ejected but the new vent sent lava towards the town of San Juan Parangaricutiro, forcing its permanent evacuation. By August, the town was completely covered in lava and ash, with only the upper portions of the main church still visible.

The evacuations of Parícutin and San Juan were able to be accomplished without loss of life due to the slow movement of the lava.

These two phases lasted just over a year and account for more than 90% of the total material ejected from the cone, as well as almost four-fifths (330 meters) of the final height of 424 meters from the valley floor. It also sent ash as far as Mexico City.

The third (Taqué-Ahuan) lasted from January 8, 1944 to January 12, 1945 and focuses on the formation of a series of cracks on the south side of the cone as well as an increase in activity in the center.

Lava flows from this time mostly extend to the west and northwest. During this period there was also the formation of a mesa now called Los Hornitos to the south.

Over the next seven years, the volcano became less active, with the ejection of ash, stone, and lava coming sporadically, with periods of silence in between.

Professional geologists pulled out of the area in 1948. The last burst of activity was recorded by him between January and February 1952. Several eruptions occurred in succession and a three-kilometer smoke column was produced.

The importance of the Parícutin eruption was that it was the first time that volcanologists were able to fully document the entire life cycle of a volcano.

The event brought geologists from all over the world, but the principal researchers were William F. Foshag of the Smithsonian Institution and Dr. Jenaro Gonzalez Reyna from the Mexican government, who came about a month after the eruption started and stayed for several years.

These two wrote detailed descriptions, drew sketches and maps, and took samples and thousands of photographs during this time. Many of these are still used today by researchers. Foshag continued to study the volcano until he died in 1956.

Between 1943 and 1948, almost fifty scientific articles were published in major journals about the volcano, with even more since. The worldwide effort to study Parícutin increased understanding of volcanism in general but particularly of scoria cone formation.

Despite the ongoing Second World War, the eruption drew attention from around the world, with reporters from newspapers and magazines including Life coming to cover the story.

Airline pilots pointed the volcano out to passengers and one Hollywood film, Captain from Castile, was shot in the area, using the erupting volcano as a backdrop and employing locals as extras.

The eruption also inspired a generation of Mexican artists to depict or allude to it in their works, including Dr Atl, Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Alfredo Zalce, and Pablo O’Higgins.

The eruptions ended in 1952, leaving a final scoria cone with a height of 424 meters from the valley floor. The eruption destroyed or heavily damaged a 233 km2 area, and almost all of the vegetation within several kilometers of the crater was destroyed.

The volcano spread lava over 26 km2, with 52 km2 covered in volcanic sand.

The town of Parícutin, which once had a population of 733, is now completely gone, and all that remains of the town of San Juan Parangaricutiro, with a former population of 1,895, are parts of its main church which stands out among the hardened lava flow.

Though no one died directly from the eruption, three people were killed when they were struck by lightning generated by pyroclastic eruptions. The damage from the eruption primarily affected five towns in two municipalities, San Juan Parangaricutiro and Los Reyes.

In addition to the two towns that were obliterated, Zacan, Angahuan, and Zirosto were also heavily affected. The main effect on the people of the area was the disruption of their lives and livelihood, especially during the first two years.

The area most affected by the eruption had a population of 5,910, and hundreds of these were permanently evacuated. Before leaving his home for the last time, Dionisio Pulido placed a sign on the cornfield: “This volcano is owned and operated by Dionisio Pulido.”

The populations of the two destroyed towns were initially moved to camps on either side of the city of Uruapan. The population of the other three towns mostly stayed in place but made adaptations to survive during the eruption.

The people of Angahuan and Zacan mostly stayed where they were. The population of Zirosto divided into three: those who stayed in the original location, now known as Zirosto Viejo, those who moved a few miles away to a ranch which is now is officially called Zirosto Nuevo but locally called Barranca Seca, and a third group founded a completely new settlement called Miguel Silva near Ario de Rosales.

The town of San Juan Parangaricutiro was the seat of the municipality of the same name, and its destruction prompted the political reorganization and a new seat at Parangaricutiro (today generally called San Juan Nuevo), where much of the population of the old seat had been relocated, with some going to Angahuan.

The economy of the area was then and is now mostly agricultural, with population mostly Purépecha, rural and poor.

However, the eruption did cause a number of changes both social and economic to the affected areas, both to adapt to the changed landscape but also because the fame of the eruption has brought greater contact from the rest of Mexico and beyond.

The volcano has become a tourist attraction, with the main access in Angahuan, from which the volcano is visible. The town offers guides and horses, to visit the ruins of the San Juan Parangaricutiro Church as well as to climb the volcano itself.

The volcano is part of the Pico de Tancítaro National Park and is mostly accessible on horseback, with only the last few hundred, very steep, meters to be climbed on foot.

The trek requires a guide even if horses are not used, as the path is not well-marked and passes through forest, agave fields, and avocado groves. Many simply visit the ruins of the church, which are easier to access and still a pilgrimage site, the old altar regularly adorned with fresh candles and flowers.

Nearby is a group of stands selling local food and souvenirs.

The story of the formation of Parícutin is the subject of the children’s book Hill of Fire by author Thomas P. Lewis published in 1983. The book was featured in an episode of Reading Rainbow in 1985.